Firsthand Insights Into Sri Lanka’s Rehabilition Of Ex-LTTE Combatants: A Sri Lankan Experience For Global Application – Analysis

Introduction

The end of Sri Lanka’s civil conflict in 2009 marked a transformative moment in the country’s history, presenting both challenges and opportunities for post-conflict recovery. Among the most significant challenges was the reintegration of former combatants, particularly members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). (1) This reintegration was a critical element in Sri Lanka’s pursuit of lasting peace and stability. This article offers a firsthand perspective on the country’s rehabilitation program for ex-combatants, drawing from my experience as a leader at the Protective Accommodation and Rehabilitation Centre (PARC) (2) in Trikonamadu, Eastern Sri Lanka.

Researcher Yulia Antonovskaya (3) noted in 2015 that Sri Lanka presents a unique context for Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) (4) programs. Unlike many post-conflict scenarios where the United Nations and international organizations lead DDR efforts, Sri Lanka’s case was distinct. The government-maintained control throughout the conflict, achieving a decisive victory, and subsequently launching its DDR program during the final phase of the war. As a result, the program primarily emphasized reintegration, with disarmament and demobilization playing a lesser role.

While academic discussions on post-conflict rehabilitation often focus on theoretical models, firsthand experience offers valuable practical insights. My tenure at PARC provided direct exposure to the complexities of rehabilitation initiatives, highlighting key strategies, successes, and challenges. This article explores those aspects and offers lessons that could inform similar programs worldwide.

Rehabilitation as a Pillar of Post-Conflict Peacebuilding

Rehabilitation of former combatants is one of the most complex and vital aspects of post-conflict peacebuilding. Scholars Ilam Khan, Ahmed Saeed Minhas, and Hajra Nasir Satti (5) wrote in a 2018 study that successful rehabilitation not only reintegrates former fighters but also addresses their psychological trauma, promoting reconciliation and social cohesion. This article examines how Sri Lanka’s approach to rehabilitating ex-LTTE combatants (6) aligns with these principles and considers its broader applicability.

Sri Lanka’s rehabilitation program diverged from traditional DDR frameworks. The International Labor Organization (ILO) stated in a 2010 report that DDR aims to enhance security and stability in post-conflict environments, laying the groundwork for long-term recovery. While DDR programs are typically aligned with broader peacebuilding efforts, Sri Lanka placed a strong emphasis on civilian reintegration.

Defense analyst Heetiarachchi (7) argued in 2013 that while global DDR frameworks provide useful guidelines, they must be adapted to the specific conditions of each conflict. Sri Lanka’s program extended beyond traditional disarmament and demobilization efforts by incorporating psychological support and economic reintegration opportunities. These elements, according to practitioners, were essential for achieving sustainable peace.

Researcher Robert Muggah, (8) who has studied DDR programs extensively, noted in a 2005 analysis that such frameworks must remain flexible to be effective. Sri Lanka’s focus on reintegration demonstrated its commitment to long-term stability, offering valuable insights for post-conflict rehabilitation efforts in other regions.

Sri Lanka’s Unique Rehabilitation Approach

Sri Lanka’s rehabilitation program aimed to transform ex-LTTE combatants into productive members of society. The “National Framework Proposal for Reintegration of Ex-Combatants into Civilian Life in Sri Lanka” outlined key objectives:

 A central aspect of Sri Lanka’s approach was its emphasis on rehabilitation rather than punitive measures, ensuring former combatants could rejoin society without stigma or isolation. The military collaborated with civil institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to provide services ranging from psychological counseling to vocational training.

However, the program faced significant criticism. Critics raised concerns about a lack of transparency, oversight, and meaningful consultation with affected communities and stakeholders. The military’s involvement also raised questions about accountability and impartiality. In a 2018 study, researcher Ambika Satkunanathan (9) noted that many ex-combatants were coerced into submitting statements of “voluntary surrender” under questionable circumstances, often after being forcibly taken from internally displaced persons (IDP) camps or detained upon entering government-controlled areas. Many of these individuals had been forcibly recruited by the LTTE and had limited involvement in hostilities, raising doubts about the validity of their surrender.

Despite these criticisms, Sri Lanka’s program represented an important attempt to address the comprehensive needs of post-conflict populations, including ex-combatants, IDPs, and other war-affected groups. Comprehensive rehabilitation and reintegration efforts were vital for facilitating their transition back into society (International Labour Organization, 2010).

The Establishment of Trikonamadu PARC: A Model for Rehabilitating Ex-Combatants

My leadership at the Trikonamadu PARC highlights Sri Lanka’s multifaceted approach to rehabilitating ex-combatants. Located in a region once controlled by the LTTE, the 3,000-acre facility housed thousands of former combatants. Its isolated location, 10 kilometers from the nearest village, Sinhapura, posed significant challenges. The neglected farmland had to be transformed into a fully operational rehabilitation center, with the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) (10) playing a key role in the facility’s development and ongoing management.

As head of PARC, I led the deployment of 15 officers and 600 airmen, responsible for the center’s security, logistics, administration, and construction. Our military team worked closely with civilian specialists to establish a secure, supportive, and rehabilitative environment. We faced numerous challenges, including the absence of electricity, water, communication infrastructure, shelter, and other basic amenities. Overcoming these obstacles was essential to launching the rehabilitation program.

A key feature of the Trikonamadu PARC was its comprehensive educational and vocational training programs, designed to prepare ex-combatants for reintegration into civilian life. The strategy focused on emotional recovery, physical well-being, and skill development, equipping rehabilitees with the tools necessary for a successful transition.

The center’s infrastructure was designed to maintain the dignity of its residents while supporting the rehabilitation process. The facility featured four housing blocks, each accommodating 500 rehabilitees, with essential amenities like electricity, sanitation, water, and recreational areas. Additionally, sports grounds, places of worship, and community spaces were constructed collaboratively by military personnel and rehabilitees, fostering mutual respect and cooperation.

Security was a top priority, with personnel stationed throughout the facility to maintain order. However, the design went beyond safety measures to encourage meaningful interactions between former combatants and military personnel. One significant initiative was the family visitation program, allowing rehabilitees to reconnect with loved ones, supporting emotional healing and family reintegration.

Structured daily activities helped create a sense of community and belonging, boosting rehabilitees’ confidence and preparing them for civilian life. These efforts were crucial in ensuring that ex-combatants received the support needed to rebuild their lives.

Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement

A central component of the Trikonamadu PARC was the collaboration between military, government, and international stakeholders. The Bureau of the Commissioner-General of Rehabilitation (BCGR) (11) provided guidance to align the program with national reconciliation and reintegration objectives. The Ministries of Health and Education played vital roles by providing medical care, psychological support, and educational services.

International organizations, such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), offered technical expertise, humanitarian assistance, and funding, ensuring that the program met international standards. Local private enterprises contributed vocational training programs, helping rehabilitees acquire skills for re-entering the workforce. These collaborations were crucial for the program’s sustainability and the long-term success of reintegration efforts.

The rehabilitation of ex-combatants at Trikonamadu PARC serves as a model for post-conflict recovery, highlighting the importance of a multifaceted, inclusive, and collaborative approach. By prioritizing human dignity, fostering cooperation, and integrating rehabilitative practices that address the physical, psychological, and social needs of ex-combatants, Sri Lanka demonstrated how former combatants can be successfully reintegrated into society.

Through my leadership in the rehabilitation efforts at PARC, it became evident that success depends on creating a supportive, structured, and respectful environment. Sri Lanka’s experience offers valuable lessons for other post-conflict nations. Rehabilitation must extend beyond meeting basic needs, incorporating emotional, social, and economic dimensions to ensure true reintegration and lasting peace. Post-conflict countries should adapt such programs to their specific needs, drawing on Sri Lanka’s flexible approach while considering local context. Ultimately, effective rehabilitation programs contribute not only to healing individuals but to building a peaceful, cohesive society.

Best Practices: Lessons Learned from the PARC Trikonamadu Experience

The success of the Trikonamadu PARC in rehabilitating former combatants demonstrates the value of a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach to post-conflict recovery. By integrating structured routines, security, and compassionate care, the program provided ex-LTTE cadres with the stability essential for emotional healing and reintegration into society. Key components, such as vocational training, psychological support, community integration, and skills development, served as a holistic framework for post-conflict rehabilitation and as a potential model adaptable for other marginalized or vulnerable groups. This approach, if extended to individuals affected by drug addiction, youth offenders, and those engaged in anti-social activities, could guide broader societal reintegration efforts and promote sustainable rehabilitation pathways.

Sri Lanka’s rehabilitation program for ex- LTTE combatants is a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach aimed at reintegrating former fighters into society.

A crucial element in building trust and fostering a rehabilitative atmosphere at the Trikonamadu PARC was the collaboration between SLAF personnel and former LTTE combatants in establishing and constructing the facility. This cooperative effort helped break down barriers of mistrust, promote mutual understanding, and underscore the shared commitment of both groups to a common goal. By working together, they laid the foundation for meaningful reintegration, providing ex-combatants with a stable and secure environment conducive to rehabilitation.

Sri Lanka’s decision to involve military personnel—who had been directly engaged in defeating the LTTE—in the rehabilitation and reintegration process was groundbreaking. This approach facilitated mutual understanding, rebuilt trust, and gave both military personnel and ex-combatants opportunities to work toward shared objectives. This model is rare globally, as it challenges conventional perceptions of the roles of the victor and the vanquished in post-conflict scenarios. It highlights the importance of collective efforts in national reconciliation and peacebuilding, offering a powerful example of inclusivity and collaboration in postwar societies.  

Sri Lanka’s experience does not follow conventional post-conflict narratives. The state maintained its capacity throughout the war and achieved a decisive victory over the LTTE, according to a Antonovskaya. (12) The inclusion of both military personnel and ex-combatants in the rehabilitation process offers valuable insights for other countries emerging from violent conflicts. It demonstrates how inclusivity and collaboration can foster national cohesion and long-term stability rather than perpetuate division.

To ensure security and proper reintegration, beneficiaries were assessed based on their risk levels—high, medium, or low—and assigned to detention centers or PARCs accordingly. The categorization process divided detainees into groups labeled A, B, C, D, E, and F based on perceived threat levels. Despite criticism from some, including Sathkunanathan, (13) regarding the treatment of ex-LTTE combatants, SLAF operatives successfully identified and apprehended Black Tiger cadres (14) attempting to hide among lower-risk groups (C, D, E, and F). This proactive approach highlighted SLAF’s ability to maintain security through comprehensive risk assessments.

Regular briefings and open communication between SLAF troops and beneficiaries further reinforced the structured environment. These practices kept rehabilitees informed of their progress, instilled a sense of control and ownership over their rehabilitation journey, and helped build trust. The consistent flow of information promoted transparency, reduced uncertainty, and maintained a calm atmosphere—essential for psychological healing and creating a predictable, disciplined living situation. This approach underscored the importance of a secure, nurturing environment as the foundation of effective rehabilitation and reintegration.

 Since no separate demobilization or disarmament initiatives were necessary following the military defeat of the LTTE, alternative measures were implemented. SLAF intelligence operatives led efforts to recover arms, ammunition, explosives, and other war-related materials from affected regions. The cooperation of ex-combatants in these operations significantly contributed to the successful recovery of military assets, reinforcing trust between former fighters and the state while promoting post-conflict stability.

To ensure security and proper reintegration, beneficiaries were assessed based on their risk levels—high, medium, or low—and assigned to detention centers or PARCs accordingly. The categorization process divided detainees into groups labeled A, B, C, D, E, and F based on perceived threat levels. Despite criticism from some, including Sathkunanathan, regarding the treatment of ex-LTTE combatants, SLAF operatives successfully identified and apprehended Black Tiger cadres attempting to hide among lower-risk groups (C, D, E, and F). This proactive approach highlighted SLAF’s ability to maintain security through comprehensive risk assessments.

Hettiarachchi (15) wrote in 2013 that military training, when guided by clear directives, allowed ground-level staff to engage effectively with ex-combatants. Rehabilitation personnel received guidance and supervision through a hierarchical structure and peer collaboration. While formal training sessions were limited, staff often learned through practice, applying common sense and compassion rooted in cultural and religious values. This approach provided a pragmatic and empathetic model for effective rehabilitation.

A key best practice at Trikonamadu PARC was leadership development, which aimed to shift ex-combatants from negative to positive leadership roles. This was achieved by assigning daily and weekly leadership tasks, dividing rehabilitees into small groups to foster teamwork, and giving them responsibilities such as overseeing food, water, and essential services. These activities encouraged personal ownership, growth, and community contribution.

The program also included religious and therapeutic activities to support emotional healing and a holistic approach to rehabilitation. These included Vipassana and Raja Yoga meditation, Catholic religious practices, artistic workshops, sports, and marital counseling workshops.

At Trikonamadu PARC, a comprehensive, multifaceted approach was adopted to facilitate the rehabilitation and reintegration of ex-combatants. One key best practice was social grooming, customs, and etiquette in social behavior, which covered dress and grooming, dining and social etiquette, discipline, and overall social conduct. This training helped rehabilitees adapt to societal norms and foster respectful behavior within their communities.

Educational rehabilitation focused on expanding educational opportunities, encouraging critical thinking, and challenging narrow ideologies. The program provided university re-admission for those excluded from formal education during the conflict and offered scholarships for higher studies. Training in basic ICT, computer-aided drafting, 3D drafting, and language skills in Sinhala and English was also available, along with typing and shorthand courses. These efforts aimed to equip rehabilitees with essential skills for personal development and future employment.

In psychological development and counseling, a comprehensive program was implemented in collaboration with the Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition, the Ministry of Social Services, and various NGOs. This initiative sought to correct distorted mindsets and facilitate attitudinal changes through structured counseling and support services.

Aesthetic workshops in drama and music were held as part of therapeutic programs to help ex-combatants address their past experiences. Led by specialists in the arts, these workshops played a crucial role in emotional healing, offering an outlet for self-expression and fostering resilience. This holistic approach to rehabilitation at Trikonamadu PARC highlighted the importance of personal development, education, and emotional healing in the reintegration process.

Another notable best practice at Trikonamadu PARC was the ‘Pay for Work’ program, which aimed to promote financial independence and empower rehabilitees as they transitioned to civilian life. Beneficiaries received a portion of the income earned from the sale of agricultural products, handcrafts, and other skilled items they produced during rehabilitation. These earnings were deposited directly into their bank accounts, ensuring that by the time they completed the program, they had accumulated a substantial amount of savings. This initiative not only provided a financial safety net for the rehabilitees but also instilled a sense of responsibility and work ethic, helping them build a foundation for economic independence and reintegration into society.

Five Stages of Rehabilitation Process

Sri Lanka’s rehabilitation program for ex-LTTE combatants was designed around five stages to achieve the program’s objectives, providing a practical, empathetic approach to understanding and managing the unique temperaments and needs of former combatants. This detailed elaboration of each stage and the methodology employed at PARC offers valuable insights for application in similar rehabilitation initiatives globally.

1. The Assurance Stage

A key practice identified during the Trikonamadu PARC experience was the importance of building trust and mutual respect between the rehabilitation team and ex-combatants. At the initial stage, many former combatants were reluctant to fully engage with rehabilitation staff due to the emotional and psychological challenges of letting go of past affiliations and embracing the program. The Assurance Stage aimed to establish a secure, stable environment that prioritized the well-being of rehabilitees, laying a foundation for trust and cooperation.

The PARC implemented this stage by focusing on both physical and psychological safety. Security was upheld through rigorous protocols, including perimeter protection, a ban on alcohol, and a strict prohibition on weapons for both rehabilitation and military personnel. Clear behavioral rules and a zero-tolerance policy for misconduct ensured a structured, predictable environment, fostering a sense of security among rehabilitees.

Equally important was the emphasis on emotional and psychological safety. Family visitations were encouraged, playing a crucial role in reducing stigma and fostering rehabilitees’ engagement in the program. This aligned with principles of social capital theory, helping to foster a sense of belonging and mutual support. The Assurance Stage contributed to rehabilitees’ ability to address past trauma and rebuild relationships with their families and communities, aiding their reintegration into society.

Before enrolling in the rehabilitation process, essential packages were distributed to ex-combatants. These packages contained clothing, hygiene products, and toolkits designed to restore dignity and meet immediate needs. During the disarmament and demobilization stages, cash allowances supported rehabilitees’ transitions to civilian life. Combined with the construction of housing units, a disciplined environment, and consistent communication, these measures created a controlled, supportive setting essential for guiding rehabilitees through their journey of healing, reintegration, and re-engagement with society.

 2.  Basic and Socio-Economic Profiling Stage

The Basic and Socio-Economic Profiling Stage was crucial in gaining a comprehensive understanding of the individual backgrounds, needs, and capabilities of rehabilitees. This process involved detailed interviews and background checks conducted by law enforcement and intelligence agencies, classifying former insurgents based on their level of involvement, duration of engagement, and roles within militant groups. The classification system identified high-, medium-, and low-risk categories, guiding their placement in either detention centers or PARCs.

The profiling stage also included in-depth assessments of educational levels, skills, and socio-economic conditions. This analysis helped identify the vulnerabilities and strengths of each rehabilitee, enabling customized interventions aimed at fostering economic independence and reducing the risk of recidivism. Tailored programs emphasized vocational training, healthcare access, and educational opportunities aligned with individual needs.

The stage revealed notable socio-economic trends among detainees. A significant number of former combatants had joined militant groups due to economic hardship, with limited formal education. Many lacked accesses to private land for cultivation, permanent housing, or vocational skills. Others possessed some resources, such as land or housing, but faced challenges like limited education or interrupted employment due to LTTE pressures.

A thorough analysis of their skills led to the implementation of a “train the trainers” program, which equipped Tamil-speaking rehabilitees with communication skills in Sinhala or English to enhance integration. Informal education opportunities provided literacy and numeracy training aligned with national standards, while Tamil-speaking detainees with teaching backgrounds helped improve communication and educational outcomes for their peers.

Customized rehabilitation programs were developed based on beneficiaries’ educational backgrounds, vocational interests, and social conditions. Training opportunities included masonry, electrical work, plumbing, welding, carpentry, tailoring, and agriculture. Since the PARC was situated on farmland, all participants engaged in cultivation activities regardless of their initial profiles. Agricultural experts guided these efforts throughout the program, promoting sustainable livelihoods and strengthening prospects for long-term reintegration.

3. Psycho-Social Profiling Stage

The Psycho-Social Profiling Stage is crucial for addressing the mental health and emotional well-being of rehabilitees, recognizing that unresolved trauma can hinder successful reintegration. This stage adopts a trauma-informed care approach, promoting psychological healing and building emotional resilience. The goal is to help rehabilitees process past experiences, manage stress, and develop positive coping strategies.

This process involved profiling experts, including clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, medical officers, and counselors. Key components included counseling, therapy sessions, peer support groups, and communal activities to foster emotional stability and social connectedness. By prioritizing psychological well-being, the program aimed to prepare former combatants to reintegrate into society as well-adjusted and constructive members. Complementary social and spiritual activities, led by religious and spiritual leaders, offered a holistic approach to healing, catering to the mind, body, and spirit.

Insights from psycho-social profiling allowed experts to identify each rehabilitee’s specific issues, leading to individualized treatment plans. By fostering a sense of purpose, enhancing personality development, and instilling moral values, these interventions promoted sustainable reintegration and empowered rehabilitees to contribute positively to their communities.

4. Reintegration Stage

The Reintegration Stage focuses on the successful re-entry of rehabilitees into society, with educational opportunities, vocational training, and employment as key elements of achieving economic self-sufficiency and social acceptance. This phase also incorporates programs aimed at reducing stigma and promoting community acceptance, which are essential for the smooth reintegration of former combatants into civilian life.

The reintegration process begins with a thorough assessment phase, which involves four key pillars:

This comprehensive approach ensures the rehabilitation process is thorough and minimizes the potential for deception. It is crucial that these assessments occur in a safe, secure environment, allowing beneficiaries to express their thoughts freely, without fear of reprisal. For example, vocational training in tailoring and carpentry was designed to meet local market demands, providing rehabilitees with practical skills for post-rehabilitation life. Daily collaboration between servicemen and rehabilitees in tasks like meal preparation encouraged mutual respect, teamwork, and integration. These efforts ensured rehabilitees gained not only the skills necessary for economic independence but also better acceptance within their communities.

A significant focus of the Reintegration Stage is on equipping rehabilitees with the qualifications, skills, and capacity-building necessary for civilian life. This includes vocational training in skills that are in demand within local communities, such as tailoring, carpentry, and agriculture. The training not only enhances employability but also fosters a sense of purpose and self-worth. Although the reintegration process itself was not within my direct responsibility—since we handed over those who successfully completed rehabilitation at PARC to BCGR—the primary task of our team was to ensure individuals were fully prepared in all aspects to facilitate effective reintegration.

Family reunification is a critical component, offering rehabilitees the chance to rebuild emotional connections with loved ones and reduce feelings of alienation. The opportunity for family visitations on weekends was particularly important at Trikonamadu PARC, where it helped foster emotional support and strengthen familial bonds. Additionally, community engagement initiatives educated local populations about the rehabilitation process, helping to reduce stigma and promote acceptance of former combatants.

Practical skills development is integral to preparing ex-combatants for life after reintegration. For example, vocational training in tailoring and carpentry was designed to meet local market demands, equipping rehabilitees with employable skills that foster economic independence. Daily collaboration between servicemen and rehabilitees in tasks like meal preparation further encouraged mutual respect, teamwork, and social integration. These efforts ensured rehabilitees gained not only the technical skills necessary for post-rehabilitation life but also better acceptance within their communities.

The Reintegration Stage focused on equipping rehabilitees with the skills, qualifications, and capacity-building necessary for civilian life. This included vocational training in areas such as tailoring, carpentry, and agriculture, which enhanced employability and fostered a sense of purpose and self-worth. While formal reintegration after rehabilitation fell under the BCGR, our primary task at the PARC was to ensure individuals were fully prepared in all aspects for their reintegration into society. This preparation was crucial for a smooth transition to civilian life and essential for long-term societal reintegration, ensuring that rehabilitees were supported both emotionally and socially as they rejoined their communities.

5. Sustaining Reintegration and Community Engagement Stage

The Sustaining Reintegration and Community Engagement Stage is vital for ensuring the long-term success of rehabilitation by building enduring community support systems and strengthening rehabilitees’ connections with their social networks. This phase focuses on ensuring that rehabilitees find employment, cultivate meaningful relationships, and contribute to their communities, securing their sustainable reintegration into society.

Efforts during this stage concentrate on continuous follow-up support, including mentorship programs, counseling services, and active community participation. Employment opportunities are pursued through partnerships with local businesses, government organizations, and NGOs. Additionally, microfinance schemes may be introduced to promote entrepreneurship and financial independence, reducing the likelihood of reoffending or falling into poverty.

By involving local communities and institutions, the reintegration process is grounded in the realities of rehabilitees’ lives. Social and economic support structures remain in place long after formal rehabilitation ends, ensuring that former combatants can navigate post-conflict life with dignity, stability, and opportunity. While the BCGR primarily oversees this stage, it is carried out in coordination with both government and non-government organizations.

However, there are both positive and negative assessments regarding the success of the reintegration process. Miriayagalla notes that many ex-combatants have faced difficulties in improving their economic well-being. These individuals often struggle with economic hardships, as many have been unable to establish micro-businesses due to physical injuries, limited skills, and inadequate access to markets and loans.

However, there are both positive and negative assessments regarding the success of the reintegration process. According to Miriayagalla (16), many ex-combatants have faced difficulties in improving their economic well-being. These individuals often struggle with economic hardships, as many have been unable to successfully establish micro-businesses due to physical injuries, limited skills, and inadequate access to markets and loans. Nevertheless, Miriayagalla also notes that despite these challenges, most former combatants reported a higher level of happiness compared to their time with the LTTE, primarily due to the “absence of fear” and improved family life, although they remain dissatisfied with their current economic conditions.

However, the effectiveness of these components cannot be assessed in isolation, as all beneficiaries underwent all six components of the rehabilitation program. By addressing the holistic needs of rehabilitees, Trikonamadu PARC provides valuable insights for global application, offering a model for reintegrating marginalized groups, youth, and individuals affected by conflict or trauma into peaceful, productive societies.

Issues and Challenges

Despite the notable successes of the Trikonamadu PARC rehabilitation and reintegration program for ex-combatants, several issues and challenges persisted, hindering the overall effectiveness and smooth transition for many rehabilitees. These challenges were deeply rooted in both the complex nature of post-conflict societies and the psychological and social dynamics of the individuals involved. Below are some of the key issues and challenges encountered during the rehabilitation and reintegration process:

Initial Hierarchical Structure Among Former Combatants

At the outset of the rehabilitation program, a significant challenge was overcoming the ingrained hierarchical structure that ex-combatants maintained from their time in the LTTE. Former cadres, especially those who had held senior positions, were accustomed to a strict military hierarchy and the authority of their ranks. As a result, there was initial resistance to treating all rehabilitees equally. The seniors often expected to retain their authority and attempted to exert influence over junior cadres, while the younger or less experienced combatants struggled with this dynamic. Overcoming this hierarchy and ensuring that all ex-combatants were treated with dignity and respect, regardless of their former roles, was crucial for building unity and trust within the rehabilitation camps.

Lack of Assurance Among Rehabilitees Regarding Military Instructors/Coordinators

Many rehabilitees initially lacked trust and assurance in the military instructors or coordinators who oversaw their rehabilitation. Given their past experiences with the military, some ex-combatants viewed these personnel with suspicion, questioning the sincerity of the program and fearing retribution or punishment. This mistrust slowed the rehabilitation process and created an atmosphere of tension and insecurity among the participants.

“Victors” Mentality Among Rehabilitees

The “victors’ mentality” emerged as a significant barrier to effective reintegration. Many ex-combatants, having been part of a militant group that had fought against the Sri Lankan government and military for decades, struggled with their perception of the post-war power dynamics. They often felt marginalized and humiliated, viewing themselves as defeated individuals in the eyes of the “victors.” This mindset impeded their willingness to engage openly and participate fully in the rehabilitation efforts.

Conflict of Interest Based on Former LTTE Positions, Roles, and Ranks

A major challenge was the internal conflict among the rehabilitees, stemming from their varying positions, roles, and ranks within the LTTE. Former senior leaders or those who held high positions in the organization often felt a sense of superiority or entitlement, while junior members or those with less prominent roles felt disrespected or sidelined. This conflict of interest created divisions within the rehabilitation camps and slowed the overall cohesion necessary for successful reintegration.

Rehabilitees Hiding Their True Selves and Not Genuinely Exposing Their Issues

Many rehabilitees were reluctant to reveal their true emotions, traumas, or psychological challenges. Fearing retribution or judgment, some ex-combatants hid their struggles, presenting a façade of compliance and readiness to reintegrate, which ultimately hindered effective rehabilitation. Without genuine self-disclosure, it was difficult for rehabilitation personnel to address the root causes of their issues and provide adequate support.

Lack of Vocational Training Options

While vocational training was a critical part of the rehabilitation process, many ex-combatants found the available options to be limited or irrelevant to their future livelihoods. The skills learned in these programs, such as basic carpentry or tailoring, were often insufficient to meet the diverse needs of the rehabilitees or the job market. Furthermore, the lack of advanced training or specialized skill development left many participants underprepared for long-term employment.

Lack of Reintegration Facilities

The absence of adequate facilities to support the reintegration of ex-combatants into society was another significant challenge. Many rehabilitees returned to their home communities or were relocated to new areas without sufficient support structures, such as employment opportunities, housing, or healthcare. This lack of infrastructure left many feeling isolated, disillusioned, and vulnerable, making it difficult for them to successfully reintegrate into society.

Training Not Workable During Reintegration Life

In many cases, the training provided during rehabilitation was not practical or suitable for real-world application during the reintegration phase. While some rehabilitees may have gained basic skills, these skills were often not applicable to the economic opportunities available to them in their communities. This misalignment between the training provided and the local job market exacerbated the challenges of reintegration.

Rejection from Society

Despite efforts to rehabilitate and reintegrate former LTTE cadres, many ex-combatants faced rejection from the very communities they were trying to rejoin. The stigma of being associated with a terrorist organization was difficult to overcome, and many members of the public viewed the rehabilitees with suspicion or hostility. This societal rejection not only hindered their reintegration but also contributed to the psychological stress and trauma experienced by the rehabilitees.

Change of Location for Families After Reintegration

In some cases, rehabilitees and their families had to relocate after reintegration due to the hostility or rejection they faced from their original communities. Moving to new locations often added additional stress and challenges, as these families had to adjust to unfamiliar environments, find new employment, and rebuild their lives with limited resources.

Leaving the Country for Overseas Jobs

Another issue that emerged during the reintegration process was the tendency of some rehabilitees to seek overseas employment, leaving the country in search of better economic opportunities. While this could be seen as a positive step for individual economic stability, it also posed a challenge to the long-term reintegration process, as these individuals were removed from the local communities where their reintegration efforts were initially focused.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Trikonamadu PARC experience offers a valuable and adaptable model for post-conflict rehabilitation and reintegration, providing critical insights into the complexities of reintegration. The success of the program lies in its holistic, multi-faceted approach, which integrates vocational training, psychological support, community reintegration, leadership development, and economic empowerment. By prioritizing collaboration between SLAF personnel and ex-combatants, fostering trust, and promoting mutual understanding, the program highlights the importance of inclusivity and cooperation in national reconciliation efforts. Best practices such as educational rehabilitation, social grooming, therapeutic workshops, and the ‘Pay for Work’ program underscore the effectiveness of addressing both the emotional and practical needs of rehabilitees. Despite challenges such as hierarchical structures, mistrust, and societal rejection, the program exemplified a model of comprehensive rehabilitation that prioritized dignity, psychological healing, and economic empowerment. The collaborative efforts between the military, civilian institutions, and NGOs were essential in overcoming logistical and emotional barriers, providing rehabilitees with the support needed to reintegrate successfully into society.

Sri Lanka’s experience in rehabilitating ex-combatants offers key lessons for global application. It underscores the importance of adapting rehabilitation programs to the specific cultural, political, and historical context of a post-conflict society. A holistic approach that integrates human rights, economic empowerment, and social cohesion is crucial for ensuring sustainable peace and stability. The Sri Lankan case serves as a reminder that post-conflict rehabilitation is not only about reintegrating individuals but also about fostering broader societal reconciliation, which is essential for lasting peace. When applied to other marginalized or vulnerable groups, these principles offer a pathway to sustainable rehabilitation and reintegration, benefiting post-conflict regions globally.

Endnotes:

1.  The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) was a separatist militant organization in Sri Lanka that waged an armed insurgency from 1983 to 2009, seeking to establish an independent Tamil state, Tamil Eelam, in the northern and eastern regions of the country. The Sri Lankan government militarily defeated the LTTE in May 2009, ending the civil war.
2.  The Protective Accommodation and Rehabilitation Centre (PARC) in Trikonamadu was a facility established by the Sri Lankan government to rehabilitate former LTTE combatants following the end of the civil war in 2009. It played a key role in the government’s broader rehabilitation efforts, focusing on social reintegration and economic empowerment to prevent re-radicalization and support long-term peacebuilding.
3.  Antonovskaya, V. (2015). Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) in the Context of a Total Victory: Elimination or Evolution of the Concept? The Case of Sri Lanka. Master’s thesis, Centre for Peace Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Education, University of Troms.
4.  Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programs are post-conflict initiatives aimed at disarming combatants, disbanding military structures, and facilitating their reintegration into civilian society to promote stability and peace.
5.  Khan, I., Minhas, A. S., & Satti, H. N. (2018). Evaluation of the Post-Insurgency Rehabilitation Program in Sri Lanka. Global Regional Review, 3(1), 76-90.
6.  Ex-LTTE combatants are former members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam who were involved in the armed conflict in Sri Lanka and were rehabilitated following the end of the civil war in 2009
7.  Hettiarachchi, M. (2013). Sri Lanka’s Rehabilitation Program: A New Frontier in Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency. PRISM, 4(2). National Defense University Press.
8.  Muggah, R. (2005). No Magic Bullet: A Critical Perspective on Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) and Weapons Reduction in Post-Conflict Contexts. The Round Table, 94(379).
9.  Satkunanathan, A. (2018). The Treatment of Former Combatants in Post-War Sri Lanka: A Form of Arbitrary Detention or Rehabilitation? In C. M. J. Ubachs & R. H. B. de Vos (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Human Rights in Asia (1st ed.). Routledge.
10.  The Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) is the aerial warfare branch of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces, responsible for air defense, ground support, and humanitarian operations.
11.  The Bureau of the Commissioner-General of Rehabilitation is the Sri Lankan government agency responsible for the reintegration and rehabilitation of former combatants, primarily ex-LTTE members, through vocational training, education, and psychosocial support programs.
12.  Antonovskaya, op. cit.
13.   Sathkunanadthan, op.cit.
14.  Black Tiger cadres were elite suicide bombers of the LTTE, responsible for carrying out high-profile attacks using explosive devices, often targeting military and government officials in Sri Lanka.
15.  Hettiarachchi, op. cit.
16.  Miriyagalla, D. (2014). Socio-economic Reintegration of Former LTTE Combatants in Sri Lanka: Self-Employment, Sustainable Incomes and Long-Term Peace. Pages 251-262. Published online: 17 September 2014.