Sufism And The Discovery Of Inner Strength – Analysis
Sufism, purification of the soul
Sufism, often referred to as Islamic mysticism, (1) is a spiritual path guided by masters that focuses on the purification of the soul and internal transformation. It emphasizes deepening one’s inner vision to transcend worldly illusions and achieve a certain spiritual certainty. Sufis believe in the importance of inner exploration to connect with the divine, which often involves practices aimed at enhancing self-awareness and spiritual elevation. (2)
Islam was born in the desert, and all its spirituality and theology are based on purification. (3) Its profession of faith, which begins with a negation (‘No divinity but God’), prefigures all its ethics/aesthetics of pared-down form: simplicity of dogma and rituals, rejection of material supports that imply a vision of a finite world (statues, figurative art, etc.). God is known through emptiness, because emptiness is fullness. Sufism is a living path of initiation. The wisdom that animates it is not a theoretical philosophy; it is a unifying, and transforming practice. (4)
Sufism, which emerged during the dawn of Islam in the 8th century, represents the spiritual and esoteric dimension of the Qur’ânic revelation. It emphasizes inner exploration and the development of internal forces through meditation, love, and the pursuit of divine knowledge. Practitioners seek a deeper connection with God and often engage in rituals and practices that aim to cultivate their spiritual awareness and moral character. (5)
Sufism (in Arabic: ٱلتَّصَوُّف, at-taṣawwuf) refers to the esoteric and mystical practices of Islam aimed at the “purification of the soul” in order to “get closer” to God. (6) It is a path of spiritual elevation, an initiatory path of inner transformation, which transcends the formalism of fundamentalists and other proponents of a rigorous Islam. It claims to be the “heart” of Islam. (7) It is generally practiced through an initiation within a tarîqah, (8) a term which designates, by extension, a brotherhood gathering the faithful around a spiritual master.
Sufism finds its foundations in the Qur’ânic revelation and in the example of Muhammad. It can therefore be said that it has been present, since the origins of the prophetic revelation of Islam, in the Sunni and Shiite branches, although it has taken different forms in both cases. (9)
Sufism refers to what Islam calls “ihsân” (excellence): the fact of worshiping God as if one were seeing him. That is to say, Sufism has the ultimate goal of opening the “heart” of the initiate to the beatific vision, to the suprarational and unitive knowledge of the divine Principle. This differentiates it from the profane sciences, which are based on efforts of thought. The realized being obtains his science directly by unveiling and vision. (10)
Sufism is the inner dimension of Sunni Islam. With its roots in the Qur’rân and Prophetic Tradition, it has often been defined as the ‘science of spiritual states’, the mastery of which should enable the initiate to transcend his or her ego and attain knowledge and contemplation of God. Fundamentally, the Sufi aspires to draw on the spiritual influx of the Prophet Muhammad, transmitted for centuries from master to disciple, which will enable him to combat the passions and illusions that beset him.
Throughout time, certain ulama (11) and scholars have spoken out against what they have called the “excesses” of Sufism. They have expressed criticism, both on the doctrine of certain brotherhoods and on their practices. Today, Salafism and Wahhabism are totally opposed to Sufi practices. (12)
In his introduction of Sufism Eric Geoffroy writes: (13)
“Sufism is an aspect of eternal, universal wisdom that was embodied in the body of the Islamic religion, which originated in Arabia in the sixth century. It can be defined as the inner, spiritual dimension of Islam, and essentially of Sunni Islam.
Of the various meanings given to the term sûfî, two are linguistically plausible. The first, immaterial, derives from the Arabic verb sûfiya, ‘he has been purified’. The aim of Sufism would therefore be to return man to his original purity, to the state where he was not yet differentiated from the spiritual world. According to the second etymology, the word sûfî derives from the word sûf, wool.
Sufism developed in a Sunni climate, because it is based on the internalisation of the Muhammadan model, the Sunna. The fundamental relationship between master and disciple only makes sense in reference to the Prophet, the ‘Master of masters’, and every Sufi order finds its legitimacy in the ‘initiatory chain’ that goes back to him. Muslim saints are therefore nourished by the blessed influence (baraka) of the one who is for them ‘the perfect Man’.”
It’s often said that Sufism is a flavour, (14) and that you can only understand it by tasting it. (15) It is dhawq (taste, tasting), a central concept in Sufism, derived from the Qurʾān and developed over several centuries, which has several interrelated meanings. (16) The Muslim meditation session is a shared moment of Sufi practice, based primarily on the invocation of divine names aloud and spiritual chanting. For the disciple, the spiritual influx conveyed by these invocations gradually purifies the heart, illuminating it and eventually setting it ablaze, leaving only unconditional love and divine oneness at the end of the journey. From the exoteric to the esoteric, beings come to grasp their ontological structures, in other words, to define themselves. (17)
Sufism is clearly a logic that can reveal the luminous side of Islam, which is not just a dogma but also a religion of love, (18) far from literal readings. Sufism can deconstruct amply the stereotypes associated with Islam. Sufism, known as the mystical dimension of Islam, emphasizes a spiritual path that seeks the deeper meanings of divine revelation and the hidden mysteries within the faith. It highlights the luminous, transformative aspects of Islam, focusing on inner experience and personal connection with the divine, in contrast to more normative interpretations of the religion.
Dialogue is created through understanding and compromise. Islam should not be understood as a law, but as a culture of love and dialogue. It is inescapable that Sufism, as a shortcut to God, is one of the faces of moderate Islam. Mysticism explains the infinite richness of Islamic civilisation. The Sufi heritage expresses the desire to affirm an open and harmonious world. (19)
On the importance and relevance of mysticism in Islam, Mehdi Aminrazavi points out that: (20)
“Ghazzālī is one of the few mystics whose brand of Sufism embraces religious orthodoxy, a gnostic intellectual framework, and the more practical and ascetic dimension of the spiritual path. Contrary to the antinomian Sufis, who violated the Islamic law (Shari‘ah) and the more relaxed attitude of some of the other Sufis, Ghazzālī was an austere and ardent observer of Islamic law.
He wrote extensively on mysticism, arguing it to be the only right path to truth. A notable piece among his writings on mysticism is The Niche of Light (Mishkāt al-anwār), a significant work of an illuminationist nature and one that influenced the formation of the doctrine of illumination (ishrāq) by Suhrawardī (Aminrazavi 1996). Also, parts of his Magnum Opus, Revival of Religious Sciences (Iḥyā’ al-‘ulūm al-dīnī), such as book thirty-five of the Iḥyā’: The Book of Faith in Divine Unity and Trust in Divine Providence, are essentially devoted to an explication of the Sufi doctrine. He also has written numerous shorter commentaries on the spiritual significance of fasting, praying, invocation of divine names and attributes, and spiritual music as instruments of the catharsis of the soul.”
Bearing in mind that al-Ghazâlî was an open opponent to philosophy which he considered a science that negated religion and the existence of God directly or indirectly. (21)
Islamic mysticism
Mysticism in Islam was born in the century following the death of the Prophet. Perhaps influenced, at its origin, by Christian hermits, it developed considerably over time, giving rise to a significant literature in verse and prose. Its followers were quickly given the name of Sufi, probably in reference to the coarse wool (sûf) with which they dressed. Other etymologies have been considered: a derivation from the Greek word sophos (“wisdom”), or from the Arabic safâ’ (“purity”), but they are generally rejected by researchers. (22)
Every religion has a mysticism, a religious current that seeks direct contact with the divine: Sufism predominates in Islam. Sufi practices were developed and organised between the eleventh and twelfth centuries, rooted in a theory of the world, man and God that was gradually established by a number of theologians. Sufism is defined by an esoteric conception of man’s relationship with the world and the divine, but also by very specific practices, including the importance of initiation rites, especially from the time of its institutionalisation in the twelfth century in what are known as the Sufi “ways”. Beyond these internal characteristics, Sufism quickly established itself as a social force in its own right, playing an important role in the history of Muslim countries from both a social and political point of view, and still retaining a real influence today, in some countries at least. (23)
Unlike scholars, who seek to reach God through the study of the Koran and religious texts, Sufis claim their ignorance. Their goal is to obtain knowledge of God not through the intellect, but through personal and intimate experience, to the point of becoming one with the Creator. One of the greatest Sufi masters, al-Hallâj, proclaimed in the streets of Baghdad, “I am the absolute truth,” namely God himself; others wrote love poems, in Arabic or Persian, where the description of the beloved corresponds to that of the divinity. (24)
For Eric Geoffroy, there are three main levels to the Islamic religion: (25)
“There are three dimensions to the Islamic religion: theological, legal and spiritual. Sufism is defined as this third, inner dimension of Islam. For a Sufi – in Arabic sūfī, plural sūfiyyūn – Sufism is seen as an aspect of eternal, universal wisdom, and as such has existed since Adam. It was embodied in the body of the Islamic religion, which was born in Arabia in the 7th century. The etymology of the term, which appeared towards the end of the second century of the Hegira, remains obscure. The Arabic word tasawwuf, literally ‘the adoption of Sufi values and rites’, is based on the word sūfī, which has been translated into French as ‘soufisme’.”
In order to attain knowledge and love of God, Sufis must travel a path punctuated by several stages – seven, in general, among which are poverty, patience, fear, satisfaction, trust in God. To do this, they practice asceticism, meditation, spiritual retreat, often for forty days. Like the mystics (26) of other religions, they also devote themselves to the tireless chanting of the name of God and the profession of Muslim faith: it is perhaps through them that the rosary, originally used in India, arrived in the West. (27) That of Muslim mystics has ninety-nine balls, each of which corresponds to one of the names of God present in the Koran.
Sufism is never practiced alone: the one who aspires to it, the murid, must be taken care of by a master, the shaikh, who takes care of his spiritual training. This relationship between the master and the student allows the perpetuation of a chain of initiatory transmission, which always goes back to Muhammad. Generally, a shaikh has several disciples, who come together in a brotherhood and practice meditation and asceticism exercises together. One of the best known is that of the Mevlevi, or “whirling dervishes”, which was born in Konya, in present-day Turkey, in the 13th century. (28)
The valorization of dance, music, sensuality, and even drink among these pious characters is justified, in their eyes, by their desire to know God not in the letter of the Koran, but in the spirit. It is noted that Sufism often gives pride of place to women: according to one of the main Sufi masters, Ibn Arabi (29) (1165-1240), (30) they have the same ability to achieve sainthood as men. Among the first followers of mysticism, we find the poet Rabia al-Adawiyya (circa 713-801), (31) who inspired the famous Egyptian singer Oum Kalsoum eleven centuries later.
Nevertheless, Sufism has often been considered subversive and lacking in the principles of Islam by religious authorities. As early as the 10th century, al-Hallâj, for example, was publicly executed. Today, the practice of Sufism is condemned in Saudi Arabia, often poorly accepted in North Africa, and violently rejected by Islamist movements. However, it attracts many young Muslims around the world in search of spiritual renewal.
Extreme Sufism: the case of al-Hallâj
Husayn ibn Mansûr al-Hallâj was a great Sunni Sufi who lived at the turn of the tenth century (around 858-922). (32) He had the distinction of saying out loud what others preached in hushed tones. For various reasons, Hallâj did not get along with the Sufi milieu of his time. He quickly abandoned it and began to preach “freelance”, so to speak, in the souks and mosques. He socialised with Jews and Christians, and talked about mysticism to anyone who would listen. His style of preaching was totally different from that of other Sufis, who usually gathered in small, discreet or even clandestine groups. Al-Hallâj travelled everywhere, in Iran, India and Arabia. He acquired enormous prestige, thousands of disciples claimed him as their own, and many miracles were attributed to him. And this annoyed the authorities to no end. He was imprisoned in 913 and remained there until 922, when he was put to death in Baghdad [then under the Abbasid caliphate].
In 264/977, al-Hallâj met Junayd (33) and practiced spiritual exercises under his direction. He received the Khirqa (the Sufi mantle) from the hands of the master. But on his first pilgrimage to Mecca, he broke off his relations with the Sufis as well as with the traditionalists and the jurists.
The union with God achieved through love was the subject of his public preaching in Baghdad. The canonists conceived a lot of anger and accused him of pantheism. The Sufis did not support him on the pretext that he had divulged secrets that should only be communicated to the initiated. Hallaj had committed the fault of publicly breaking “the discipline of the arcane”. The politicians and the jurists demanded a fatwa to send him to the gallows. He was put to death on a spring day in the year 922, the 24th of Du’l-Qa’da.
But whatever its immediate effects, his martyrdom ultimately proved to be a source of strength for the status of the mystics and for mysticism itself within the community as a whole.
The verdict that no one had the right to utter such words: “ana al-haq” (I am the Truth) was gradually forgotten in favour of a view that it was not the man in this case who was speaking, and now for a growing number of Muslims the condemned formula is itself primarily an important piece of evidence that al-Hallâj was one of the greatest saints of Islam, while at the same time it serves as a general demonstration of the fact that Sufis are not always responsible for what they express. (34)
For mystics like al-Hallâj and his colleagues, it is possible to have an experience of God on Earth. There is the possibility of contact through the heart – which is considered suspect. In Islam, everything depends on the testimony of the prophet Muhammad, who revealed the Qur’ân and delivered the hadith. If there are mystics who claim to be in touch with the source of revelation, it’s a bit like putting themselves in competition with the prophet. In fact, Sufis do not do this, but they are easily branded heretics.
Sufis profess union with God here below. In this configuration, what happens to the Judgement and the Resurrection? This suggests that they already see themselves as eternal in God: the Last Judgement therefore loses its meaning. Another delicate point concerns divine love, an idea they profess against the text of the Qur’ân. For classical Muslim theologians, God can be merciful, he can be good to human beings, he can deliver benefits, but there cannot be a feeling of love between humans and God – in either direction – because they are of too different a nature, incommensurable. Yet in his poetry, and in particular in his diwân [poetic collection], al-Hallâj teaches this love of God, which is considered reprehensible by theologians. (35)
Generally speaking, al-Hallâj was convinced that, in the face of God, human beings were illusory and that they owed God everything – their bodies, their minds and their ability to say ‘I’. The Sufi experience as he understood it was one of annihilation in God. The human being is thought of as a mirror in which God is reflected. The divine “I” is therefore reflected through the mirror of humanity. Communication with God takes place paradoxically in the name of the annihilation of their person. (36)
After al-Hallâj’s execution, the Sufis realised that they had to be careful. A sort of modus vivendi was established over the centuries, namely that if the Sufis kept to themselves and did not preach publicly, they could have the experiences they wanted of extinction in God, without being persecuted. But they had to keep quiet and recognise political or legalistic power as the official power. This is the model that persists today, albeit in very different ways in different geographical areas. In Saudi Arabia, for example, they are still persecuted by the Wahhabi authorities, who tolerate only Sharî’ah law and exclude Sufis. Sufis are accepted and identified in countries such as Egypt, where there is a ministry responsible for registering them. Senegal is another example, where more than half the population belongs to Sufi orders. And in other countries, such as Morocco, the government is even trying to support Sufi brotherhoods as a counterweight to fundamentalist Muslims.
Wahhabism (37) and Sufism represent two distinct approaches within Islam. Wahhabism, often associated with a strict interpretation of Islamic doctrine, emphasizes a return to the fundamentals of Islam and rejects practices seen as innovations or deviations (bid’ah), including Sufism. This movement prioritizes a literal interpretation of the Qur’an and Hadith, focusing on monotheism and strict adherence to traditional teachings.
In contrast, Sufism emphasizes the inner, spiritual dimensions of faith, advocating for personal experiences of the divine through practices such as meditation, poetry, and music. Sufis often seek a deeper emotional and mystical connection to God, and their practices are generally viewed as foreign by Wahhabi followers, who see them as straying from the principle of tawhid (the oneness of God).
Both groups thus hold opposing views regarding religious practice, with Wahhabism rejecting Sufi customs due to their perception as innovations. (38)
Sufism and Islamic culture
Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, significantly influences Islamic culture through its emphasis on personal spiritual experience, love for God, and community values. It promotes practices such as meditation and prayer to seek truth and closeness to God. Sufi traditions also blend elements from various other religions, including Jewish mysticism and Hinduism, contributing to a rich tapestry of cultural expressions. The engagement of Sufis often reflects in public displays of piety, such as veiling and traditional attire, influencing broader societal norms within the Islamic community. (39)
The influence of Sufism on Islamic culture is profound and multi-faceted. Sufism, which can be understood as a mystical dimension of Islam, emphasizes personal spirituality and the inner experience of God. This has led to the development of various artistic expressions, including poetry, music, and dance, that reflect its spiritual themes. Notable Sufi poets like Rumi (1207-1273) and Hafez (1325-1389/1390) have made significant contributions to literature, while Sufi rituals and practices have enriched religious life in both Sunni and Shia traditions. Additionally, Sufism has fostered a sense of community and tolerance within the broader Islamic culture, often serving as a unifying force across different sects and practices. (40)
From the thirteenth century onwards, Sufism was no longer a marginal phenomenon; in fact, it became the dominant trend in Sunni Islamic culture, single-handedly energising spiritual, intellectual and artistic life. Attracting more and more followers, it reoriented piety and religious life.
Sufism has significantly influenced Islamic culture through its emphasis on personal experiences of God, which has led to rich traditions in poetry, music, and dance. Rooted in the Qur’ân and the example of the Prophet Muhammad, it encourages a deeper spiritual connection rather than just adherence to religious law. Over time, it has developed a vast body of literature and has integrated various cultural elements enriching the Islamic practice and thought. (41)
Sufism has profoundly influenced Islamic art and literature in several ways. Sufi poets like Rumi, (42) Hafez, (43) and Ibn Arabi used poetry to express their mystical experiences and thoughts about the divine. Their works often explore themes of love, unity, and the search for God. Sufi poetry employs rich symbolism and metaphors, such as the beloved representing the divine, leading to emotional and spiritual depth.
On the relevance of Sufism in today’s Muslim world, Marcia Hermansen writes: (44)
“However, expectations that Sufism is on the wane are challenged by observations of how Sufis have adapted to changing circumstances in modernity, both in Muslim-majority societies and in the West. For example, some scholars document a Sufi renewal involving the rise of charismatic teachers and practices and the reach of new global networks. Sufi teachings are promoted through Internet sites and social media, while today’s Sufi teachers may draw on 20th century Western psychological frameworks to explain the spiritual and therapeutic impact of Sufi practices on individuals. Meanwhile Sufi ideas are disseminated to broader publics through music videos, conferences, and other cultural events, such that Sufism in these new configurations continues to inspire significant, if more diffuse, loyalties, both locally and globally. In an age of networking and social mobility, flows of individuals and ideas have created new transnational spheres for the influence and impact of Sufism. At the same time local conditions vary considerably in shaping its diverse contemporary expressions and adaptations.”
The intricate design of Arabic calligraphy, (45) often used in Sufi texts, reflects the beauty and spirituality of the written word. Sufi writings are frequently depicted in art, emphasizing their importance. Many Sufi themes and stories were illustrated in Persian and Mughal miniature paintings, showcasing the beauty of Sufi narratives and teachings.
The Sufi practice of samâ’, or ritual listening, (46) often involves music and dance as a means to achieve spiritual ecstasy. The whirling dervishes of the Mevlevi Order are a notable example of this. The development of musical traditions, such as Qawwali in South Asia, (47) draws on Sufi themes, facilitating spiritual expression and connection through sound. (48)
The architectural style of Sufi shrines often blends various cultural influences, creating spaces meant for contemplation and spiritual gathering. These shrines are often adorned with decorative arts reflecting Sufi themes.
Sufi thinkers like al-Ghazali (1058-1111) (49) and Ibn Arabi contributed to Islamic philosophy, blending Sufi concepts with Islamic theology, impacting not only religious thought but also broader philosophical discourse.
Overall, Sufism’s emphasis on personal experience and the quest for divine love has enriched Islamic art and literature, resulting in a diverse and vibrant cultural expression that resonates across time and geography.
Sufism has played a significant role in cultural exchanges throughout history, particularly due to its emphasis on spirituality, inner experience, and universal values. Here are some key ways in which Sufism facilitated cultural exchange:
Sufi teachings often focus on the commonalities among religions, promoting understanding and respect between different faiths. Sufi masters engaged in dialogues with followers of various religions, fostering mutual appreciation.
Sufism has greatly influenced poetry, music, and art across different cultures. Sufi poets like Rumi and Hafez transcended cultural boundaries, inspiring artists, musicians, and writers in various traditions, blending themes of love, devotion, and the search for the Divine.
Sufi music is a genre that is deeply rooted in the spiritual traditions of Islam, often characterized by its mystical and devotional themes. It is performed across the Islamic world and includes various styles, instruments, and cultural expressions. Traditional Sufi music aims to inspire spiritual ecstasy and connection to the divine, frequently featuring singing, poetry, and instrumental accompaniment. Popular platforms like Spotify offer compilations and collections of Sufi music, (50) showcasing both contemporary and traditional performances. (51)
Sufi music holds significant relevance as it serves as a means to purify the soul and foster a direct connection with the divine. Through immersive practices like samâ’, which includes music, song, and dance, Sufi music (52) creates a spiritual atmosphere conducive for experiencing closeness to love and divinity. Additionally, it is believed to possess healing properties, promoting emotional and spiritual well-being by addressing negative energies and enhancing mental health. (53)
Sufi ascetics and scholars often traveled widely, especially through trade routes. They not only spread Islamic teachings but also absorbed local customs and spiritual practices, creating a rich tapestry of cultural exchange.
Sufi orders often engaged in missionary work, (54) introducing Islamic thought to new regions while adapting to local beliefs and practices, thus facilitating an exchange between Islamic and indigenous cultures.
Sufi philosophers interacted with other philosophical traditions—such as Neoplatonism, Hinduism, and Buddhism—leading to the cross-pollination of ideas that enriched both Islamic and non-Islamic thoughts.
Sufi practices often emphasized social justice, equality, and unity. This engaged various social groups, encouraging cooperation between diverse communities in places where Sufism was practiced.
Through these avenues and many others, Sufism has been a powerful conduit for cultural exchange, promoting a sense of shared humanity and spiritual exploration across diverse religious and cultural landscapes.
Sufism, the way of the heart
Sufism, or Tasawwuf, is often viewed as a spiritual dimension of Islam that emphasizes the inward search for God and the cultivation of spiritual knowledge and experience. Although the term “Sufism” does not appear in the Qur’ân, its principles are reflected in various verses that encourage deeper faith, love of God, and the pursuit of purity of the heart. Sufism serves the monotheistic vision of Islam by emphasizing spiritual practices such as remembrance (dhikr) and meditation, aiming to connect the individual deeply with the divine. (55)
In the profusion of currents of wisdom that have emerged in Islamic culture, Sufism presents itself as the “way of the heart”. The “heart” is for the Sufis this faculty which, beyond intellectual speculations, beyond devout practices, allows man to grasp the vibration of the Being in the flow of life, and to commune with it in an indescribable way. Initiatory practices proposed by the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq, the “ways”) aim to gradually purify the heart of the applicant, to free him from the hypnosis of daily life and his passions, to make him receptive to the inner or outer calls revealing to him the meaning of his pilgrimage on earth. These practices are very diverse: repetition of litanies in a loud or quiet voice, silent meditations, collective worship more or less extroverted according to the brotherhoods and cultural circles, songs, music, sometimes dances. (56)
A follower of the mystical path of Islam, the Sufi explores the hidden meanings of the Qur’rân and uses techniques of meditation, asceticism, ecstatic song and dance to approach Allah.
Historically, this Sufi impulse has deeply and lastingly permeated the culture of Muslim societies. Some of the most eminent figures have taken part in it: the great theologian al-Ghazali (d. 1111), a poet of genius like Rumi (d. 1258) (57) the Emir Abd el-Kader in Algeria in the 19th century. (58) It manifested itself in poetic expression and lyricism, and gave to the poetry of different languages in use some of its most brilliant masterpieces; Turkish and especially Persian poetry are indebted to it for an inspiration that continues to this day (themes of love, wine, beauty in general as supernatural revelations). (59) It permeates music and even sacred choreographies, whether in the hieratic purity of Mevlevi ceremonies (whirling dervishes), in the moving spontaneity of more popular cults, or even ceremonies inducing real trances. He left his mark on arts as diverse as architecture and calligraphy. Some great masters, such as Ibn Arabi, (60) devoted themselves to a dizzying exploration of human language in an uninterrupted meditation on sacred texts: it is through his Word that God created the universe and man, it is in the sacred language that the Sufi can reveal the secret of his own aspiration.
More generally, the Sufi brotherhoods exercised considerable social influence, especially from the 12th century onwards. They were led to manage hospices and schools, and their convents became important places of meeting and exchange. They spread an ideal of “spiritual chivalry”, of inner combat as well as religious attitudes within the reach of believers immersed in ordinary life. But, victims of their own success, they were also led to play an important political role, with all the compromises that this sometimes entailed. Since the 19th century, they have been attacked simultaneously by conservative reformist currents (Wahhabism) who see heresy in them, and by progressives who accuse them of obscurantism. (61) Nevertheless, the Sufi orders continue to follow the path of the heart to this day, considering themselves precisely as “the heart of Islam”. (62) (63)
What is Sufism, or rather, what is it not?
Sufi psychology is about rediscovering our original pure nature (Fitra (64))
As the Sufi masters have always affirmed, before building or rebuilding the spiritual authenticity of human beings, we must first deconstruct the illusions they conceal. This applies a priori to our perception of Sufism, which is subject to so many prejudices: before embarking on this path, we must first consider what Sufism is and what it is not, in other words, understand its foundations and objectives.
In fairly unstructured Muslim societies, the lack of reference points can make you dizzy. Many have been deeply wounded by established religions, which one has experienced as shackles and even traumas. So, one needs to work on restoring psychic and mental balance. In this sense, Sufism has more of a therapeutic role than ever, because its initiatory path necessarily involves a process of personal psychological deconditioning. This involves “dis-identifying”, getting rid of all false identities (egotistical, family, social, political, professional, even religious…), which cause to suffer and lead some to dramatic impasses. In this way, one releases an inner freedom that one never suspected existed within, and one recovers metaphysical identity, one’s “original homeland”.
Inner living of oneness (Tawhîd).
The entire framework of Islam is based on the attestation of the Oneness of God, Tawhîd. But what does recognising this Oneness imply? By following a gradual process of interiorisation, one is led to move from a still external, and therefore dualistic, perception of Oneness (‘I’ and Tawhîd, ‘I’ and God), to its inner, experiential, unifying understanding. Reintegrating Oneness involves overcoming the contradictions and paradoxes inherent in human nature. This experience requires accompaniment: ‘Tawhîd is like fire: it does not invest a thing without burning it, and driving out of it its impurities.
Doesn’t the initiatory process of Sufism boil down to transmuting the exoteric testimony of Islam (shahâda) into direct, gustatory contemplation (mushâhada) of spiritual realities? One is helped in this operation by one’s inner witness (shâhid). But as spiritual awareness develops, one realises that the true witness within is Him!
“Nourishing” the soul: Sufism as an antidote to the different forms of nihilism
The absence of meaning, or nihilism, affects the West and the East today, manifesting powerful symptoms such as consumerism and the techno-scientific headlong rush of the Western type. This leads to the negation of the human, and this aberration requires a powerful medication: a conscious and responsible spirituality.
The spiritual dimension
Spirituality is about the things of the Spirit; it means that the material, sensible world must be understood and governed from the spiritual or metaphysical world. All authentic religions therefore establish the pre-eminence of the spirit over matter. Islam is not an ideology, but a spiritual breath.
The inner, esoteric dimension
Reality cannot be reduced to appearances. In the Qur’ân (57:3), God presents Himself as both the Exterior (al-zâhir) and the Interior (al-bâtin). Now, creation is in the image of God: behind the world of forms, dogma and Law, there is an inner Reality (haqîqah) that represents the foundation of religion and gives it its true meaning. It is this reality that the Sufi tends to perceive, starting from the outer or peripheral norm (sharî’ah), and then progressing along the initiatory Path (tarîqah) that links the appearance to the essence. (65)
This introspective process is outlined in the Qur’ân, particularly in 51: 20-21: (66)
“On earth there are signs for those who have clear vision. And do you not see within yourselves?”
The outside comes from the inside, just as the rind of a fruit envelops the stone. Yet most of the time we live in a superficial, distracted consciousness. So, we need to go in search of our inner selves, the better to realise our humanity!
With its roots in the Qur’ân and Prophetic Tradition, Sufism is a science of taste, a discipline that enables the human soul to work on its ego. Sufis draw on the spiritual influence of the Prophet, transmitted for centuries from master to disciple, to overcome the passions and illusions that beset them.
The Sufi does not reject the world: he “marries” it in order to transcend it! The Qur’ân (41: 53) urges us to decipher the “signs” (al-âyât), to contemplate God in His manifestation, in the beauty of the world:
“We will show them Our signs in the universe and in themselves until they see that [God] is the Real.”
The Sufi spiritual journey
The Sufi is a person who has completed a spiritual journey, who is fulfilled in God, in a word, a saint: no Sufi disciple can apply such a name to himself. That said, to simplify the discussion the term Sufi is used to indicate the disciples of Sufism, although more precise terms are faqîr (poor), tâlib (student), murîd (one who desires), salîk (one who is on the way), dervish (beggar). The main individual and collective rite of Sufism is dhikr, the invocation of divine names, which can be recited aloud or in silence, or manifested in ecstatic dances. The barakah is the supernatural power, energy and blessing that circulates between the master and his disciples.
The Sufi spiritual journey represents a profound quest for knowledge of oneself and the Universe, rooted in the mystical dimension of Islam. Sufism is seen as the education of the soul, seeking to soothe consciences and awaken a sense of universality, thus promoting an enriching social life.
Voyaging in Sufism involves an exploration of the spiritual dimensions of Islam, emphasising the journey of the soul. In countries like Iran and Turkey, travellers can immerse themselves in Sufi practices, engage in deep contemplation, and connect with the essence of being. This journey serves not just as physical travel but as a means to understand one’s inner self and uncover human character.
For the Sufis, the usefulness of travel lies in the fact that it is an effective means of revealing the characteristics of the human being. For them, in proximity and distance, there is no question of distance; the human being is in a state of incessant immobility, because existence is synonymous with movement.
Sufism is a personal quest
Islam loudly proclaims its fidelity to the purest of monotheisms, rejecting paganism and the Christian Trinity outright: Surah Ikhlas, 112, of the Qur’ân:
“Say: God is one. He is the eternal God. He neither gave birth nor was given birth. He has no equal.”
Muslim mysticism (Sufism) follows this path, and professes the unity and glory of the one God (tawhîd). As an introspective quest, Sufism seeks to go beyond the Qur’ân, on the one hand by encouraging an in-depth reading of the text that would complete the apparent meaning of its verses and reveal their hidden meaning. On the other hand, by proposing techniques of purification and contemplation (in imitation of the Prophet Mohammed, who withdrew to pray in a cave) and specific rituals.
Religions do not have the same conception of God. The Christian Trinitarian God is not that of the Qur’ân or the Torah and the personal God of the three monotheistic religions is not Brahman, the impersonal Absolute of Hinduism which coexists with thousands of gods from which they are the emanation; while Buddhism is a religion without God, although fertile in deities. These different perceptions of the divine and the religious traditions they have created have been conditioned by the history, culture and language of the countries where they were born. That said, beyond these differences, all religions worship the same divine reality, but each in its own way. And there is a kinship between the paths of the Neoplatonic, Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Taoist or Buddhist mystics. (67)
Representing the highest form of spirituality, mysticism is a personal quest for the hidden God who resides in the heart of each person through the practice of asceticism aimed at detaching oneself from the world. For Plotinus, a Neoplatonic mystical philosopher, man belongs through his body to illusory matter but he is through his soul a fragment of the supreme intellect and the creative logos. Salvation for him can only result from the recognition of his true nature which is only accessible if one manages to rise above the sensitive condition to ecstasy, an encounter with the divine, the source of all bliss towards which the soul merges after having purified itself. (68)
Both a philosophy and a method of deliverance allowing one to escape the cycle of reincarnations, yoga plays a central role in Hinduism. Submission of the body for a spiritual purpose, it sets out the path of the yogi in eight stages at the end of which he rediscovers his identity with Brahman, which in itself constitutes the supreme deliverance. For the philosophical school of Vedanta, the self (atman) is of the same nature as Brahman, the ultimate undifferentiated reality. It advocates the theory of absolute oneness and the equivalence of all religions. Its greatest master, Ramakrishna, declared that he had reached the Absolute through each of the great mystical traditions, thus indicating that for him, all paths lead to the same reality, one and inexpressible. One of his paths being Zen Buddhism which leads to awakening through meditation sitting in the posture of Buddha. Taoism is a religious and mystical philosophical doctrine that conceives of the Tao as a cosmological principle, and a suprasensible and ineffable absolute that can be accessed through techniques of breath control and concentration, the first step in a long process including an increasingly demanding asceticism. (69)
In Judaism, Kabbalah is an esoteric and mystical movement aimed at deciphering the book of the creation of the world by the unknowable God. (70) In the West, Christians were slower to develop a mystical tradition compared to the Byzantines and Muslims. Meister Eckhart developed a metaphysical mysticism advocating a detachment from everything that is not God. For him, it is about allowing man to become by grace what God is by nature. The mystical and contemplative part of religion is greater in Orthodoxy than in Catholicism. Orthodox mysticism traces its origins to the experience of the Desert Fathers of the purification of the soul through prayer of the heart allowing communion with God in solitude. A great figure of monastic spirituality, Saint John Climacus (71) formulated the doctrine of hesychasm: perpetual prayer of the soul devoted to contemplation, far from the world, in silence. From there, one can achieve perfect indifference to earthly things, it is the ultimate degree before union with God. (72)
Muslim mysticism, Sufism, is influenced by Christian monasticism, Persian illuminism, (73) Hindu ecstasy and Jewish Kabbalah. The spiritual state of baqâ’ (pure “subsistence” outside of all form), to which Sufi contemplatives aspire, is the same as the state of moskha, the deliverance spoken of in Hindu doctrines, as the extinction (al-fanâ’) of individuality, which precedes “subsistence” is analogous to nirvana. Just as in Buddhism, one rises by degrees to the highest points of the annihilation of individuality by following a path composed of eight parts, the “noble path”, so Sufism also has its path, its tarîqah, with degrees of perfection. It aims to personally relive by the mystical way (tarîqah) the spiritual truth of the message of the Prophet, beyond the literal given of revelation (shari’ah). It represents the esoteric aspect of Islam, distinct from the exoteric in the same way that direct contemplation of spiritual – or divine – realities is distinct from the observance of laws. Love plays a central role in the teachings of the Sufi masters, who consider the spiritual station associated with it to be one of the most insignificant of all.
Another element common to all Sufis is dhikr/zikr or ‘invocation’, which consists of remembering God, in particular by repeating his name rhythmically or according to traditional formulas taken from the Qur’ân, such as the shahâdah. dhikr/zikr is considered to be a practice that purifies the soul, because the name of Allah is considered to have a kind of theurgic value that is mystically ardent, Ibn Arabi developed a metaphysical doctrine based on the absolute uniqueness of being “wahdat al -woujoud”, which is in line with Neoplatonic philosophical monism and the Hindu doctrine of non-duality between the Whole, Brahman, and the individual, as expressed in the mantra “tat vam asi” (“this is you”).
Sufism is a bridge between religions and cultures
Sufism is seen as a bridge between religions and cultures, a privileged ambassador to the West. Sufism, which presents itself as the free “variant” of Islam, has always been a source of enthusiasm, but also of controversy. Sometimes taking different paths to achieve the same goal: love of the Creator and of creation, religion and discipline complement and regenerate each other. (74)
Sufism serves as a bridge between religions and cultures by emphasizing a universal spiritual core that transcends specific doctrines. It engages with the primary traditions of various faiths, fostering dialogue and understanding. Sufism seeks to illuminate the deeper meanings of religious practices, renewing their significance for followers, and presenting a perspective that appreciates the wisdom found in diverse cultural expressions of spirituality.
It all began with the spiritual families that emerged in Islam in the 11th and 12th centuries. Specific guidance, initiatory methods and several stages make up the spiritual and educational itinerary of the faithful. In the conditions and events of the time (fall of Baghdad 1258, Mongol invasion …) (75) that fuelled this spiritual need for a new vision of the world and its vagaries, Sufism was the salvation.
Defined as “Muslim mysticism”, the essence of Sufism boils down to its ability to pinpoint the divine presence through intuition and contemplation. The main aim of Sufism is to pierce the opacity of this world, in order to contemplate spiritual realities in simple faith. (76)
From the 11th century, Sufi masters taught in the madrasas and higher institutes of Baghdad like their counterparts the ulama.
The precepts of Sufism are published in works and the doctrine is not persecuted by the Orthodox religion. But things will change. Judging that the Sufis go too far in their “love” of the divine, “guardians of religion and law” begin to persecute them en masse.
Al-Hallaj, who cried out during a moment of spiritual ecstasy, “I am the Real” (ana al-haq) was even executed… a martyr of divine love who ends up merging with the divine presence by dint of loving it, this is what he calls “al-houloul” (the incarnation).
The Wahhabis, inveterate disciples of Ibn Taymiyya, persecutor par excellence of the Sufis, reproach them for their brotherhood practices that quickly became popular. In fact, they wanted to take away from Islam its free and intimate side, so venerated by Sufism. The exhibition also draws portraits of the great masters who have shaped Sufism over time.
Each in their own way, they have enriched the doctrine with their spiritual experiences and their respective reflections. Ibn Arabi, (77) Jalal Eddine Rumi, al-Hallaj, al-Ghazali, Rabia al-Adawiyya… different experiences and approaches, different visions, but a single motivation: the love of God, the creator and creation. (78)
Drunkenness, music and dance, holiness, metaphysics of being, spiritual intuition… the paths multiply and differ among the Sufis, but the original essence remains intact and does not lose its appeal.
Why do Islamists hate Sufis?
Why was the al-Rawda Mosque in Bir al-Abd, located in North Sinai in Egypt, the target of an attack that caused the death of 305 people, including 27 children, on Friday, November 25, 2017? Everything suggests that the fact that it is frequented by Sufi Muslims is the cause of this attack.
Indeed, even if it has not officially claimed responsibility, Daesh hates the supporters of Sufism, which would explain the attack. And which had already led the terrorist group to kill the Sufi preacher Suleiman Abu Harraz in November 2016 near the city of El-Arich, on the grounds that he practiced witchcraft.
Muslim extremists accuse the Sufis, whom they have attacked many times in the past in Egypt and Pakistan, of erasing the distinction – fundamental in Islam – between God and man. Indeed, the declared goal of the Sufi is to immerse oneself in God to the point of becoming one with him. (79)
In this traditional branch of Islam – both Sunni and Shiite – that is Sufism, its followers seek a personal spiritual path, marked by mystical experiences, elevation, and even asceticism. This Islam of peace, turned towards others, is the antithesis of the warlike Islam advocated by the Islamists who criticize it for its esoteric dimension and its heretical character. (80)
Thus, the Iranian Abu Yazid Bistami (died around 875) recounts the dazzling mystical experience he had. “At the cost of a frenzied asceticism, he begins an initiatory journey and sees his being dialogue with God, reflected in Him to such an extent that there is a substitution of the two persons,” recounts Éric Geoffroy, a Sufi himself, in a work published on the subject in 2013 by Éditions Eyrolles. (81) And when someone knocks on his door and asks, the great mystic can answer: “No, there is only God in this house.” The divine presence has annihilated the ordinary human ego in him.
Taming the “I”
Like Islam in general, Sufism aims at submission to the will of God and preparation for the expected encounter with him. But, more than other Muslims, Sufis insist on the need to tame the nafs within themselves, the selfish “I”, frequently compared to a fiery horse, and influenced by Satan.
In their daily struggle, Sufis rely on a hadith (word attributed to the Prophet) comparing the “small jihad”, to be waged on the battlefields against the enemies of Islam, with the “great jihad”, an internal one. It is only once the nafs is mastered that a place is freed up for God in the heart of the believer and that an encounter, a dialogue then becomes possible with him.
“The Sufi then rises towards this God who is also Absolute, Truth and Unity, going up an inner ladder punctuated by stations (maqam), becoming aware that Creation in its entirety is only a manifestation of the Uncreated. He then tastes the state of annihilation in God,” writes Thierry Zarcone. (82) A rise sometimes described as “ecstasy” or “trance,” which can take the form of an attraction “upward” or “inward,” leading toward God in the form of concentric circles…
Sufism was structured from the 12th century in the form of brotherhoods (tarîqah), systematizing the doctrines and experiences of the first “masters” (shaykhs): Rabia, Bistami, then Ibn Arabi (died in 1240) and especially Rumi, founder in Konya, Turkey, of the brotherhood of the Mevlevis (or whirling dervishes). The tombs of the saints of the brotherhood are also venerated and become places of pilgrimage or festive gatherings (moussem). Initially elitist, Sufism also became popular, colored by different traditions depending on the regions of the world where it was established. (83)
The ultimate goal of Sufism
The ultimate goal of Sufism is to achieve a state known as fanâʼ, which represents the annihilation of the self in God. This state signifies a profound spiritual union with the divine, where the individual experiences a complete merging with God’s essence. Sufis seek this ultimate realization through various spiritual practices, including meditation, prayer, and the remembrance of God (dhikr/zikr).
The ultimate goal of Sufism, a mystical dimension of Islam, is to achieve spiritual union with God (Allah). Sufis seek to transcend material desires, purify their souls and approach divine truth through love, devotion and spiritual knowledge. This journey involves a process of inner purification, spiritual discipline and deep meditation.
This is achieved through spiritual practices such as dhikr/zikr (remembrance of God), prayer, meditation, asceticism, and sometimes even musical or dance rituals (such as the whirling dervish dance of the Mevlevi Sufis). The essence of Sufism is to achieve a state of fanâ’ (annihilation of the ego) in order to reach the state of baqâ’ (permanence in the consciousness of God), where the soul is in harmony with the divine presence. Sufism places great emphasis on divine love, believing that love is the driving force that brings man closer to God, leading him to a profound understanding of the unity of existence.
The aim of Sufism is to achieve union and closeness with God. This involves a profound inner purification and spiritual transformation, where the individual transcends the ego and merges with the divine essence. Sufis aspire to live in a state of constant spiritual awareness, marked by divine love, inner peace and wisdom.
This quest for union with God aims to reveal the ultimate truth of existence and to experience the divine presence in every aspect of life. The central idea is to transcend the limitations of the ego and immerse oneself in the love and light of God, leading to an intimate understanding of the unity of all creation.
Sufism is a discipline whose ultimate goal is an encounter with the divine in this world. And this encounter is only possible through an accomplishment, an elevation of one’s spiritual state. To achieve this elevation, the disciple needs two wings. One is the Law and the other is the Spirit. The Law is everything that is rules, everything that constantly taints and weighs down the soul. The other wing, the Spirit, is spiritual exercises, self-emptying, detachment from matter, a certain asceticism, meditation and contemplation.
Dance and song are also used to achieve this elevation. The whirling dance performed by dancers known as Whirling Dervishes (84) is undoubtedly the most astonishing and best-known religious act in the West. Although whirling dervishes perform regularly, their dance is sacred. ‘It is an extension of meditation practices. Whirling Dervishes can whirl, sway or hop around, slowly at first and then with increasing speed. These three movements describe those of the angels around the divine throne.
Seekers of truth who wish to follow the path of Sufism must first undergo an initiation. It’s an act of allegiance. They take an oath to honour the path. Initiation varies from one order to another.
Sufi meditation
Sufi meditation, also known as mystical meditation, is a spiritual practice aimed at achieving a deep union with God. One specific technique within this practice is called murâqabah, which involves observation or maintaining a spiritual connection through the heart, fostering an ongoing awareness of God’s presence. (85)
Sufi meditation, or dhik/zikrr, is a spiritual practice focused on the remembrance of God. It often involves repetitive prayer, chanting, or affirmation, and can include techniques like closing the eyes and mouth to enhance concentration. Followers believe that through this meditation, they connect deeply with the divine and cultivate awareness of God’s presence. The practice may vary among different Sufi orders, with some influenced by Indian philosophical thoughts. (86)
Sufi meditation is an essential spiritual practice that helps practitioners connect more deeply with the divine presence. This meditation, known by various names such as murâqabah (inner observation or spiritual vigilance), involves intense concentration and immersion in the contemplation of God.
The meditator cultivates a keen awareness of the divine presence within and around him. He focuses on the idea that God is always present and that one must be in constant communion with Him. Through meditation, the Sufi seeks to purify his heart of all distractions, negative thoughts, or worldly attachments. This purification is a step toward spiritual enlightenment. Often, Sufi meditation is accompanied by dhikr/zikr, the ritual repetition of the names of God or phrases such as: la ilâha illallâh (There is no god but God). This chanting or whispering helps to center and channel the mind toward the divine. In quieter forms, the meditator sits in peace, often with eyes closed, to contemplate the nature of God or divine love. Conscious breathing can also be used to quiet the mind and facilitate a deeper spiritual connection.
The goals of Sufi Meditation are as follows:
To achieve a state of inner peace and spiritual balance;
- To awaken the soul to divine reality;
- To develop a heightened sensitivity to spiritual messages and inner guidance; and
- To eliminate the illusions of separation between self and the divine, thus realising the oneness of existence.
Sufi meditation is considered a transformative tool, allowing the practitioner to free himself from the illusions of the material world to live in divine consciousness and universal love.
Sufism is a mystical Islamic philosophy that emphasises the purification of the soul and self-realisation, aiming to transcend the ego to become a universal man. It draws from various spiritual traditions and has been influenced by Platonic thought, particularly in its philosophical development in the 13th century. Sufism cuts across both Sunni and Shia branches of Islam, promoting a form of wisdom and spirituality that is integral to the Muslim experience.
Humanism and Sufism
Humanism represents one of the questions and one of the most important problems that have greatly interested the philosophical discourse at the level of its different doctrines; that which discourse has made the only means of constructing a global conception of existence and the existing, as evidenced by the content of the most important founding texts of Islamic philosophy. These texts have effectively valued the human being considered as the thinking being capable of mentally erecting the world with firmness. Al-Farabi (87) offers an example of this in his volumes “Arâ’ ahl al-madînah all-fâdilah” and “Tahsil assa’âdah“. (88)
The example also comes to us from what Ibn Sina / Avicenne (89) (980-1037) (90) mentions in many places, whether in “ash-shifa” or in “al-Ishârat and al-Tanbîhat“. And if it has been the subject of theological debates between the Al-Mu’atazilah and the al-Ash’airah divided thus between the Creative and the Acquired as for the actions, the humanist current in the Islamic Sufi heritage is no less important in philosophy and theology. In fact, Sufism has granted it great care so much so that the emphasis is placed on the notoriety and the centrality of man on the scale of existence. (91)
Thus, if the philosophers and theologians have focused on reason to thus elevate its status by invoking methods of argumentation and proof, the Sufis have then distinguished the human being with many attributes. Besides this need for clarity of mind and fiery insight which is not sufficient, vision can only be righted if it is avoided, and this is a requirement which can only be attained by strengthening the mind with special faculties such as heart, conscience, imagination and taste so that the Self can reach the level of the complete human being who remains the soul of the world. (92)
It is to this same meaning that Ibn Arabi refers in his work “Fusūs al-Hikam” initiated by “fusadamic” to thus underline the centrality of man at all levels of physical and metaphysical existence by saying:
“As soon as the Truth (God) wanted, with regard to his beautiful names that the census cannot reach, to see their essences and if you wanted, you would say “to see His Essence” in a globalizing universe that contains everything (al-wujûd) (…), he created the whole world, the perfect ghost-existence without soul; it was like an undisclosed mirror (…) which required the transparency of the mirror of the world so that Adam was the essence of the pure transparency of this mirror and the soul of this image (…) Thus, this remembered [Adam] was called a man and a caliph”. (93)
Starting from the “Akbarian” model, it becomes clear that the humanistic Self in Sufi thought is not reduced only to the Self characterized by rational insight, but global reality and an isthmus combining Truth and Creation, Kingship and Kingdom, the Invisible and the Visible. In this regard, it becomes clear that the Sufi humanistic current is not only based on a rational centrality, but rather on the confessional divine unveiling (Shuhūd) based on an existential truth that is expressed at all levels of existence, from the restricted natural existence to the absolute divine existence. Al-Ghazali refers to this in his writing “Mishkât al-Anwâr”, saying:
“Then [God] granted His favor to Adam, and He gave him an abbreviated and complete image of all kinds of things in the world, so that it was as if everything in the world, and it is a summary copy of the world. And the image of Adam – I mean this image – is written by the hand of God. It is divine calligraphy without numbers or letters… ” (94)
From there, various theories in Islamic Sufism have come to fruition, all focusing on the human Self in its entirety, taking into account the contributions and extensions associated with it and which are rooted in the collective human spirit. And as a result, one must emphasize the relevance of research in philosophical, theological and Sufi thought as well as the need for its rehabilitation in the light of modern scientific methods available to researchers. This is, an attempt to renew the discussion on the meaning of the world, of man and of God.
Conclusion: Sufism, a path of wisdom
Sufism, which is practised by Sunnis and Shiites alike, is the Islam of spiritual depth, openness of heart and reconciliation with the sacred. This mystical Muslim path already existed at the time of the Prophet Muhammad (6th century AD), although it did not bear that name. (95)
It is precisely to reconquer the faithful’s heart that Sufi mysticism (96) sets out with originality. Sufism is not a sinecure, but a long journey of initiation. While some believe that the divine is hidden somewhere behind the cumulus clouds, the Sufis are far from this. Spirituality does not fall from the sky; it develops slowly like any other human capacity. (97)
The Sufi path is a slow and arduous one. It is a path of constancy, patience, spiritual states to attain and passages to complete. The zâhir/bâtin (apparent/hidden) dichotomy, i.e. the idea of an esoteric meaning hidden behind the apparent (linguistic, literal) meaning, is specific to Sufi commentaries. Indeed, for Muslim mystics, the ultimate aim of the Qur’ânic narratives is pedagogical and indicates a personal and spiritual path in the way of God.
Sufi commentators often differ on particular points, but for all of them, what is fundamental is the inner struggle with a view to the elevation of the being. It is a journey that involves a passage from multiplicity to unity, through a progression through (permanent) spiritual stations and an elevation through (temporary) spiritual states. The ultimate goal of the journey is holiness and complete union with God. For many Sufis, including the 11th-century commentator al-Qushayrî, (98) the story of the sleepers (Qur’ân, 18:9-26), who, persecuted for their faith, take refuge in a cave and miraculously awaken after a sleep of hundreds of years, becomes the image of the stations of detachment and isolation from the world, necessary in the journey towards God. (99)
When one begins the Sufi process, his heart is veiled, but as soon as it is purified, it opens, like the lotus in Buddhism, quite simply. The eye that opens will enable one to see, but things of a different order. Because the heart can hear, see, feel, it has extraordinary intelligence. For example, the “sixth sense” that some mothers develop towards their child is just the tip of the iceberg of man’s spiritual capacities. In a completely fragmented society, prey to a serious spiritual desolation, Sufism has a response to offer to the loss of meaning of modern humanity.
From the thirteenth century onwards, Sufism was no longer a marginal phenomenon; in fact, it became the dominant trend in Sunni Islamic culture, single-handedly energising spiritual, intellectual and artistic life. Attracting more and more followers, it reoriented piety and religious life.
Sufism is a path of spiritual teaching and “journeying” that lies at the heart of the Islamic tradition. (100) It is also an expression of its culture and, one might say, the very spirit of its civilisation. In this sense, Sufism, which is first and foremost a spiritual experience, a ‘dhawq’ or a personal flavour, has also been, throughout history, the continuous source of intellectual, poetic, literary and artistic (particularly musical) creativity and, in an even more global way, although insufficiently explored, the source of a particularly rich and creative societal productivity. (101)
The teachings, songs, art or literature of Sufism traditionally expressed in the languages and cultural modalities of the sub-Indian continent, black Africa, the Maghreb, Asia, Central Europe or the Middle East – but largely hidden today – refer to the need to go beyond the limits of egocentrism to access the ultimate and universal meaning of love, knowledge or compassion and essential values that are found at the heart of all the great traditions of wisdom. This supposes that these diverse cultures are not only approached as heritages or legacies of the past but rather by what they can transmit to the world today of their most fertile messages, the celebration of an ultimate sense of Beauty – that which Dostoevsky said that it alone could save the world – which is expressed in a wisdom, a poetics and an art of living. It is important today, by connecting these cultures and the values they convey, to make possible the implementation of this paradigm at the heart of our country at a time when, with the current crisis, each of our societies is questioning the life lessons to be learned from this ordeal and what its new directions will be.
Also, on the way in which this spiritual culture can contribute to providing answers to the improbable challenges that the era is facing. In what way, with other projects, other schools of thought or cultures, other civilizations, it can contribute to “giving a soul to globalization”. A globalization that it would then be up to us to regulate in such a way as to lead to new chains of solidarity and collaboration. (102)
Sufism, a path of wisdom, embodies an all-too-familiar face of Islam, one of openness, respect and brotherhood. It is a living teaching, transmitted from master to disciple, whose origins go back to the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. (103)
Sufism is a path of personal education and inner knowledge, accessible to anyone on a spiritual quest, whatever their culture or social background. For the Sufi disciple, it is through an intimate experience and an active life in society that a dimension of being is revealed, one that conveys the profound meaning of creation. (104)
It’s often said that Sufism is a flavour, and that you can only understand it by tasting it. The Sufi meditation is a shared moment of Sufi practice, based primarily on the invocation of divine names aloud and spiritual chanting. For the disciple, the spiritual influx conveyed by these invocations gradually purifies the heart, illuminating it and eventually setting it ablaze, leaving only unconditional love and divine oneness at the end of the journey. (105)
Sufism is the quintessential spirituality of Islam. From the outset, it has been a movement that creates an intimate link between the immortal soul and the divine. The task of a lifetime is to care for this soul, which must absorb light and truth before continuing on its journey… (106)
You can follow Professor Mohamed Chtatou on X: @Ayurinu
Endnotes:
- Knysh, A. (2017). Sufism: A New History of Islamic Mysticism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvc77j8m
- Ernst, C. (1997). The Shambala Guide to Sufism (p. 2-3). Boston, Mas.: Shambala.
- Seybold, Kevin S., & Peter C. Hill. (2001). The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(1), 21-24. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.00106 ‘’An increased interest in the effects of religion and spirituality on health is apparent in the psychological and medical literature. Although religion in particular was thought, in the past, to have a predominantly negative influence on health, recent research suggests this relationship is more complex. This article reviews the literature on the impact of religion and spirituality on physical and mental health, concluding that the influence is largely beneficial. Mechanisms for the positive effect of religion and spirituality are proposed.”
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2019). Soufisme, c’est quoi et pourquoi. Article 19.ma. Retrieved from http://article19.ma/accueil/archives/120155. 2019.
- Geoffroy, É. (2018). Qu’est-ce que le soufisme ? In Testot, L. (ed.), La Grande Histoire de l’islam (p.78-84). Auxerre : Éditions Sciences Humaines. https://doi.org/10.3917/sh.testo.2018.01.0078.
- وظهرت بالإسكندرية طائفة يسمون الصوفية، يأمرون بالمعروف… ويعارضون السلطان في أمره فترأس عليهم رجل منهم يقال له أبو عبد الرحمن الصوفي – . See al-Kindī, Muḥammad b. Yūsuf. (1908). Kitāb al-wulāt wa-kitāb al-quḍāt, (p. 162). Beirut: Maṭba‘at al-ābā’ al-yasū‘iyyīn; also al-Maqrīzī, Aḥmad b. ‘Alī. (1911-1923). al-Mawā‘iẓ wa-l-I‘tibār bi-ḏikr al-ḫiṭaṭ wa-l-āṯār, 3 volumes (Volume III, p. 182-183). Cairo, Institut français d’archéologie orientale. For the self-imposed role taken by some radical groups of overseeing the right moral conduct in public (al-amr bi-l-ma‘rūf wa-l-nahy ‘an al-munkar), see Michael Cook, Michel. (2000). Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, (p. 461). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and see also Sviri, S. (2012). Sufism: reconsidering terms, definitions and processes in the formative period of islamic mysticism. In G. Gobillot & J.-J. Thibon (éds.), Les maîtres soufis et leurs disciples des IIIe-Ve siècles de l’hégire (IXe-XIe) (1‑). Amman, Jordan : Presses de l’Ifpo. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifpo.3096.)
- Lings, M. (1975). What is sufism? Oakland, California : Univ of California Press.
- Tarîqah (Arabic: طَرِيقة [tarīqah] (pl.: turuq: طرق): process, way, method) generally refers to mystical Sufi brotherhoods in Islam, whose followers are gathered around an ancient or recent holy figure, around his lineage and disciples.
- Burckhardt, Titus. (1990). An Introduction to Sufism. Detroit, Mi: Aquarian Press.
- Skali, Faouzi. (1993). La Voie Soufie. Paris : Albin Michel. “See Sufism from within. To understand its perception of the world. That’s what I’ve tried to make communicable to a certain extent in this book. It responds to the lived experience of the path that nourished its writing. It is from this experience that the inner-exterior vision is born, from which I have tried to sketch out certain aspects of spiritual initiation in Islam. The metaphysical path, the essence and spirit of the tradition. A path of love and knowledge.’’
- Ulama, or ulema (from Arabicعلماء ʿulamā’, plural ofعالم ʿālim), are Islamic scholars who are experts in Islamic doctrine and law. They serve as the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge within Islam. Their role encompasses various fields, including theology and legal scholarship. Cf. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. (2007). The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (p. 1). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Woodward, M.; Umar, M. S.; Rohmaniyah, I.; & Yahya, M. (2013). Salafi Violence and Sufi Tolerance? Rethinking Conventional Wisdom. Perspectives on Terrorism, 7(6), 58-78. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26297065
- Geoffroy, É. (2018). Op. cit.
- It is often described as a “flavor” dhawq of Islam due to its unique focus on personal experience of the divine and the characteristics of God, such as compassion and patience.
- Abuali, E. (2022). “I tasted sweetness, and I tasted affliction”: pleasure, pain, and body in medieval Sufi food practices. The Senses and Society, 17(1), 52-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/17458927.2021.2020607
- Hirtenstein, S. (2018). Dhawq. In W. Madelung and F. Daftary (eds.), Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_037167
- Abenante, P. (2017). Tasting Islam: religious aesthetics and modernity in a contemporary Egyptian Sufi brotherhood. Culture and Religion, 18(2), 129-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/14755610.2017.1326960 ]
- Chittick, William C. (1984). The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi. Albany: State University of New York Press.
- Aminrazavi, Mehdi. (2021). Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism
- Ibid
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2021). Abou Hamed al-Ghazali, défenseur et rénovateur de la foi islamique. Oumma. Retrieved from https://oumma.com/abou-hamed-al-ghazali-defenseur-et-renovateur-de-la-foi-islamique-2/
- Sviri, S. (2012). Op. cit.
- Aminrazavi, M. (1994). The Significance of Suhrawardī’s Persian Sufi Writings in the Philosophy of Illumination. In L. Lewisohn (ed.), Classical Persian Sufism: From Its Origin to Rumi (pp. 259–283). London: KNP Press. –––. (1996). Suhrawardī and the School of Illumination. London: Curzon Press. –––. (2003). The Logic of Orientals: Whose Logic and Which Orient? In M. H. Faghfouri (ed.), Beacon of Knowledge: Essays in Honor of S. H. Nasr (pp. 41-49). Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae. –––. (2003). How Avicennian was Suhrawardī’s Theory of Knowledge? Philosophy, East & West, 53(2), 203-214.
- Payami, Maryam. (2017). Hallaj and Saying I Am the Truth. International Journal of Philosophy and Social-Psychological Sciences, 3(5), 28-36. Retrieved from https://sciarena.com/storage/models/article/iCNOHcLicwKaaens4ya1QTFUHllVBDqSlCqtY0YQ5ZZfnfZxolnlEoWjXT2c/hallaj-and-saying-i-am-the-truth.pdf
- Geoffroy, Éric. (2018). Soufisme. Orient XXI. Retrieved from https://orientxxi.info/mots-d-islam-22/soufisme,2367
- Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
- Sufi chanting, known as Dhikr or Zikr, is a fundamental practice in Sufism that involves the remembrance of God. It serves as a spiritual cleansing exercise aimed at purifying the heart and soul. This practice is designed to elevate consciousness, foster a deep love for God, and can induce a trance-like state, facilitating a closer connection to the divine.
- Lifchez, Raymond (ed.). (1992). The Dervish lodge: architecture, art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. Berkeley, University of California Press.
- Thirteenth-century Andalusian mystic (1165-1240) considered to be one of the most qualified representatives of Sufism, hence his title ash-shaykh al-akbâr (the greatest of masters).
- Ibn Arabi, also known as Muhyi-d-Din Ibn Arabi, was a prominent Muslim scholar from Andalusia, recognized as a theologian, poet, and metaphysician. His works have significantly influenced Islamic spirituality since the 13th century, and although he authored over 800 texts, only about 100 have survived. His ideas form a cornerstone of metaphysical thought in Islam.
- Rabia al-Adawiyya (Arabic: رابعة العدوية القيسية) (circa 713-801) was a renowned Muslim mystic and poet, recognized as one of the most prominent figures in Islamic spirituality. Born in Iraq, she was captured as a child and sold into slavery. Her life and teachings emphasized love for God, selflessness, and devotion, making her a pivotal figure in Sufism. She is often celebrated for her poetry and profound spiritual insights, earning her the title “the athlete of God.” Cf. Smith, Margaret. (1995). Rābiʼa al-ʼAdawiyya al-Qaysiyya. In Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Vol. 8. Leiden : Brill.
- Massignon, Louis. (1975). La Passion de Hallâj : Martyr mystique de l’Islam, Volume. 1 (pp. 116-120). Paris : Gallimard.
- Junayd (Arabic: الجنيد), full name Abû l-Qāsim al-Junayd ibn Muḥammad al-Khāzzaz al-Baghdadī (Arabic: أبو القاسم الجنيد بن محمد الخزاز البغدادي), born around 830 in Nihawand in Djibāl (ancient Media), and died in 910 in Baghdad – at that time, capital of the Abbasid Caliphate – is a high figure of Sufism of the classical period (seventh to tenth centuries). He was a very great spiritual master (‘The Lord of the Spiritual Tribe’ is one of his nicknames). Al-Junayd is recognised as a descendant of the Prophet of Islam Muhammad via his grandson Al-Hussein ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib.
- Mason, H. (1974). The Death of Al-Hallaj: A Dramatic Narrative: A Special APR Supplement. The American Poetry Review, 3(4), 25-37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27774709
- Al-Hallâj, Mansur. (2016). ‘I Am the Truth’ (Anal-Haq) Diwan of Mansur Al-Hallaj, translated by Paul Smith. North Charleston, South Carolina : CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
- Blankinship, Kevin. (2022). The House of His Desires. The life and legacy of al-Hallaj. Lapham’s Quarterly. Retrieved from https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/house-his-desires
- Wahhabism is a religious revivalist movement within Sunni Islam founded by the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. It is characterized by its austere interpretation of Islam and a rejection of practices deemed as innovations (bid’ah) or polytheistic (shirk). Wahhabism has been the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia for over two centuries. Cf. Hoover, Jon. (2019). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn Taymiyya (pp. 3, 11, 43, 68–69, 144). London: One World Publications.
- Auda, Jasser. (2011). Sufism Vs. Wahhabism. About Islam. Retrieved From https://aboutislam.net/shariah/shariah-and-humanity/shariah-and-life/islam-lives-matter/
- Smith, James L. Jr. (2005). Sufism: Islamic Mysticism. Verbum, 3(1). Retrieved from https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/verbum/vol3/iss1/10
- Nicholson, Reynold A. (1989). The Mystics of Islam. London: Penguin Group.
- Hermansen, M. (2023, December 13). Sufism in the Modern World. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved from https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-512.
- Rumi, also known as Jalal ad-Din Rumi, was a 13th-century Persian poet, Islamic scholar, and theologian. His most significant work is the “Masnavi,” a poetic and esoteric commentary on the Quran and Hadiths. Rumi’s teachings often emphasize self-transformation and spiritual growth.
- Hafiz. (1979). Teachings of Hafiz, translated by Gertrude Lowthian. London: Octagon Press Press for the Sufi Trus.
- Hermansen, M. (2023, December 13). Op. cit.
- Sufi Arabic calligraphy is a form of artistic expression that combines the spiritual themes of Sufism with the beauty of Arabic script. Often characterized by intricate designs and poetic verses, it reflects deep philosophical and mystical concepts prevalent in Sufi teachings. Artists may create unique pieces using various techniques, showcasing their appreciation for both Islamic art and spirituality.
- Samâ’ (Arabic: سماع) is an Arabic word (Turkish: semâ) that refers to the notion of spiritual hearing. Samâ’ also refers to a sacred gyratory dance of the Mevlevi Sufi whirling dervishes performed in the semahâne (monastery dance hall). It is also known as ayin. Samâ’, therefore, is a Sufi practice involving the ritual listening to music, chanting, and recitations. It aims to create states of ecstasy and facilitate mystical experiences among participants, often during gatherings of Sufis and dervishes who seek to contemplate the Divine.
- Qureshi, R. B. (1994). Exploring Time Cross-Culturally: Ideology and Performance of Time in the Sufi Qawwālī. The Journal of Musicology, 12(4), 491-528. https://doi.org/10.2307/763973
- Lewisohn, Leonard. (1997). The Sacred Meditation of Islam: Sama’ in the Persian Sufi Tradition. British Journal of Ethnomeditation, 6, 1-33.
- Abū Hamid Muḥammad al-Ghazālī, born in 1058 in Tūs, Iran, and died in 1111, was a prominent Muslim philosopher, theologian, logician, jurist, and mystic. He is revered for his contributions to Islamic thought and is a significant figure in the development of Muslim philosophy and theology. Al-Ghazali’s works often integrated the principles of mysticism and rationalism, making him a crucial figure in the rich tapestry of Islamic intellectual history. He studied in Nīshāpūr and his influence extends to various areas, including Sufism.
- Akhtar, Navid. (2024). An introduction to Sufi Music. Barbican. Retrieved From https://www.barbican.org.uk/s/sufimusic/#group-Gnawa-thSNUcJc4W
- Ipassio. (2023). Sufi Music: Tracing the Path of Divine Love. Ipassio. Retrieved from https://www.ipassio.com/blog/sufi-music?srsltid=AfmBOopllEqYu_Yt_0egT9nmAIjeg0lHkFBjBiRA1sTsWvXHeva_N4_L
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2019). The Jajouka Master Musicians: A Universal Hymn to Tolerance and Peace from Morocco to The World – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/16092019-the-jajouka-master-musicians-a-universal-hymn-to-tolerance-and-peace-from-morocco-to-the-world-analysis/
- Markoff, I. (1995). Introduction to Sufi Music and Ritual in Turkey. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 29(2), 157-160. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23061989
- Sufi missionary work refers to the efforts of Sufis to spread Islam through their unique approaches that focus on spirituality, love, and personal connection with God. Sufis often engaged in educational initiatives and community outreach, attracting followers by emphasizing the internal, mystical aspects of faith. This approach contributed significantly to the expansion of Islam in various regions, particularly in South Asia and Africa.
- Arberry, A. J. (2013). Sufism: An account of the mystics of Islam. London: Routledge.
- Chaudhry, Hafeez-ur-Rehman. (2013). Understanding the Philosophy of Spirituality at Shrines in Pakistan. In Bennett, Clinton; Ramsey, Charles M. (eds.), South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny (1st ed.) (pp. 43-60). London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
- Rumi, Maulana Jalaluddin. (1961).Op. cit.
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2024). Emir Abd El-Kader, The Dramatic Life Story of a Philosopher-Saint Hero of a Decolonization Quest in Africa – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/23102024-emir-abd-el-kader-the-dramatic-life-story-of-a-philosopher-saint-hero-of-a-decolonization-quest-in-africa-analysis/
- Salamah-Qudsi, Arin. (2020). A New Study Model for Arabic Sufi Prose. Middle Eastern Literatures, 23(1–2): 79-96.
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Ibn ‘Arabi and The Search For Humility and Purity – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/06022020-ibn-arabi-and-the-search-for-humility-and-purity-analysis/
- The systematisation and institutionalisation of Sufi brotherhoods began in the nineteenth century, more specifically during the reign of Muhammad Ali. In 1812, the viceroy promulgated a firman granting Sheikh Muhammad Al-Bakri exclusive authority over all mysticism. On the institutionalisation of mysticism in Egypt, see Jong, F. de. (1978). Turuq and Turuq-Linked Institutions in Nineteenth-Century Egypt. Leiden: Brill.
- Bashir, Shahzad. (2013). Sufi Bodies: Religion and Society in Medieval Islam(pp. 9–11, 58–67). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
- Malik, Aijaz Hussain. (2013). Tracing the Genesis of Conversion: The Role of Sufi Missionaries in the Islamization of Kashmir. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(6). Retrieved from https://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0613/ijsrp-p1846.pdf
- Fitra (Arabic: فِطْرة, fiṭra) refers to the innate nature of human beings in Islam. It denotes the natural disposition to recognize and be drawn to God. Fitra embodies the idea that humans are born with an inherent inclination towards faith and goodness.
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Unveiling The Bektashi Sufi Order – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/23042020-unveiling-the-bektashi-sufi-order-analysis/
- Surah ad-Dhariyat (51:20-21) emphasizes the importance of contemplating the signs of Allah in the creation of the heavens and the earth. It encourages reflection on these signs as a means of recognizing the truth of the message brought by the prophets and urges people to ponder their purpose in life, affirming that all creation serves as evidence of Allah’s existence and capabilities.
- Chittick, W.C. (2007a). Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The Pertinence of Islamic Cosmology in the Modern World. London: Oneworld Publications.
- Haitami, M. E. (2014). Women and Sufism: Religious Expression and the Political Sphere in Contemporary Morocco. Mediterranean Studies, 22(2), 190-212.
- Philippon, A. (2015). Soufisme et politique. Revue Des Deux Mondes, 59-65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44435653
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2023). The Reciprocal Influence Between Sufis and Kabbalists – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/15032023-the-reciprocal-influence-between-sufis-and-kabbalists-analysis/
- Saint John Climacus, also known as John of the Ladder, was a Byzantine monk who lived from around 579 to 649 AD at the monastery on Mount Sinai. He is best known for his spiritual work “The Ladder of Divine Ascent,” which outlines a path for achieving spiritual growth and asceticism.
- Mojaddedi, J. A. (2000). Legitimizing Sufism in al-Qushayri’s” Risala”. Studia Islamica, (90), 37-50.
- Al-Hujwiri. (1959). The Kashf al-Mahjub, the Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism. London: Luzac Press.
- Inayat Khan, Pir Ziya. (2024). Soufisme et unité mystique des religions. Paris : L’Harmattan. This book shows the profound ecumenism of Sufism as it appears in historical, literary and spiritual convergences. Drawing on the Koran, prophetic traditions, classical Sufi sayings, traditional stories and verses from Arabic, Persian and Urdu divans, Soufisme et unité mystique des religions (Sufism and the Mystical Unity of Religions) examines the inner teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam from the perspective of Sufi gnosis. The same water, the water of divine revelation, flows in the rivers of the world’s revealed traditions.
- The Mongol invasions were a series of military campaigns launched by the Mongol Empire, particularly under Genghis Khan in the early 13th century. Notably, the invasion of China began in 1211 against the Jin Empire and involved significant territorial expansion throughout Asia and into Europe, with campaigns between 1236 and 1242 aimed at conquering various regions across the continent.
- Vincent, J. (1999). Fruit of the Tree of Knowledge: The Relationship between Faith and Practice in Islam. In John Esposito (ed.), The Oxford History of Islam, (pp. 63-106). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Ibn ‘Arabi and The Search for Humility and Purity – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/06022020-ibn-arabi-and-the-search-for-humility-and-purity-analysis/
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Delving Into Sufism – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/27042020-delving-into-sufism-analysis/
- A commonplace in political science is the animosity expressed by Islamists towards Sufis. However, several studies have contradicted this assumption by highlighting the rigidity of the differentiation (Weismann, Itzchak. (2005). The politics of popular religion: Sufis, Salafis, and Muslim Brothers in 20th Century Hamah. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 37(1), 39-58 ; Belal, Youssef. (2006). Mystique et politique chez Abdessalam Yassine et ses adepts. Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 135, 165-184). We are well aware, therefore, of the limitations of such a dichotomy, but for the sake of simplification (the use of the term is, moreover, highly controversial) we have decided not to depart from the way in which political science treats the so-called “Islamist” phenomenon (Étienne, Bruno. (2003). L’Islamisme comme idéologie et comme force politique. Cités, 2(14), 45-55.
- Salem, F. (2016). The emergence of early Sufi piety and Sunnī scholasticism: ʿAbdallāh b. al-Mubārak and the formation of Sunnī identity in the second Islamic century (Vol. 125). Leiden: Brill.
- Geoffroy, Eric. (2013). Le soufisme : Histoire, fondements, pratique. Paris : Eyrolles.
- Zarcone, Thierry. (2009). Le soufisme ; voie mystique de l’Islam. Paris: Gallimard.
- On the relationship between the brotherhoods and political power in contemporary times, see Jong, Fred de. (1983). Aspects of the Political Involvement of the Sufi Orders in Twentieth Century Egypt.
- Whirling Dervishes are followers of the Mevlevi order, a Sufi group known for their unique practice of physically active meditation. This form of meditation, characterized by a spinning dance, originated in the 13th century and symbolizes their mystical beliefs. The whirling dance is a blend of spirituality and artistic expression, serving as a way to achieve a connection with the divine.
- Papas, Alexandre. (2019). La réalité divine, but de l’enseignement soufi. Oasis, XV(29), 49-57. Retrieved from https://www.oasiscenter.eu/fr/la-realite-divine-but-de-enseignement-soufi
- Buehler, Arthur F. (1998). Sufi heirs of the Prophet: the Indian Naqshbandiyya and the rise of the mediating sufi shaykh. Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press.
- Al-Farabi discusses the concept of the ideal city, which he describes in his works “Arâ’ ahl al-madînah al-fâdilah” (The Virtuous City) and “Tahsîl assa’adah” (The Attainment of Happiness). He explores themes related to politics, ethics, and the philosophical ideal of a society governed by virtuous principles, influenced by earlier philosophers like Aristotle and Plato.
- Virtuous City, has several names in Arabic: 1. (Arabic: آراءُ اَهْلِ الْمَدینَةِ الْفاضِلَة, romanized: Ārā’ ahl al-madīnah al-fāḍilah); 2. (Arabic: مبادئ آراءُ اَهْلِ الْمَدینَةِ الْفاضِلَة, romanized: Mabādi’ ārā’ ahl al-madīnah al-fāḍilah); 3. (Arabic: آراءُ اَهْلِ الْمَدینَةِ الْفاضِلَة والمضاداتها, romanized: Ārā’ ahl al-madīnahh al-fāḍila wa-lʼmuḍāddātihā); last name might appear in Eastern publications. In Western academic works, they as a rule interpret the final two words of the Arabic title (i.e., al-Madînah al-fadilah) into: Excellent State, Ideal State, Perfect State, and Virtuous City, the final name is most common.
- Ibn Sina/Avicenna, also known as Avicenna, was a Persian philosopher, physician, and scientist born in 980 near Bukhara, Iran, and died in 1037. He made significant contributions to various fields, including medicine, where his works influenced both Islamic and European thought for centuries.
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2022). Ibn Sînâ (Avicenne), le Prince de la médecine. Oumma. Retrieved from https://oumma.com/ibn-sina-avicenne-le-prince-de-la-medecine-2/
- Ohlander, E. (2008). Sufism in an Age of Transition: ʿUmar al-Suhrawardī and the Rise of the Islamic Mystical Brotherhoods (Vol. 71). Leiden: Brill.
- Melchert, Christopher. (2015).The Cambridge companion to Sufism (pp. 3-23). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- Chittick, William. (1998). Between the Yes and the No: Ibn al-‘Arabi on Wujud and the Innate Capacity. In Forman, R.K.C. (ed.), The Innate Capacity: Mysticism, Psychology, and Philosophy (p. 10). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Al-Ghazzali. (1970). The Book of Knowledge (p. 42). London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
- Geoffroy, Éric. (2019). Le soufisme. Histoire, fondements et pratiques de l’islam spirituel. Paris: Editions Eyrolles.
- Massignon, L. (1997). Essay on the origins of the technical language of Islamic mysticism. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.
- Lings, Martin. (1997). What is Sufism? Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrî was an 11th-century Arab Muslim scholar known for his contributions as a theologian, jurist, commentator of the Qur’an, and spiritual master. He was born in 986 in Ustuwā, Khurasan. One of his most notable works is “Lata’if al-Isharât,” a comprehensive commentary on the Qur’an that integrates Sufi thought.
- Schiavo, Viviana. (2019). La sourate de la Caverne, symbole du parcours soufi. Oasis, XV (29), 137-139. Retrieved from /fr/la-sourate-de-la-caverne-symbole-du-parcours-soufi
- Chtatou, Mohamed. (2019). Soufisme vs. Islamisme dans le Maroc d’Aujourd’hui. Article 19.ma.
- Chopra, R. M. (2016). Sufism (Origin, growth, eclipse, resurgence). New Delh:i Anuradha Prakashan.
- Abdullah, S. (2018). Sufism, Islam and Globalization. Pakistan Horizon, 71(1/2), 115-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44988442
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. (2007). The Garden of Truth: The Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam’s Mystical Tradition. New York: HarperOne.
- The social importance of Sufism lies in its role as a spiritual path that emphasizes the purification of the soul and personal connection to the divine. Historically, Sufism has played a significant social, political, and economic role within Islamic societies. It has fostered community cohesion, provided support to the marginalized, and often served as a channel for social justice and reform. Sufi orders have been instrumental in spreading Islamic teachings and values, promoting intercultural dialogue, and encouraging ethical behaviour, which contributes to social stability and harmony.
- Arberry, A J. (1943).Introduction to the History of Sufism. London: Longmans, Green.
- There is a large body of orientalists and historians who have spoken of the ‘decline’ of Sufism. See, for example: Arberry, Arthur J. (1950). Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd; Trimingham, John Spencer. (1971). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford : Clarendon Press; Meier, Fritz. (1957). Sufism and Cultural Decline. In Robert Brunschvig (ed.), Classicisme et déclin culturel dans l’histoire de l’Islam. Actes du Symposium international d’histoire de la civilisation musulmane, Bordeaux, 25-29 June 1956. Paris, Besson et Chantemerle; Gilsenan, Michael. (1967). Some Factors in the Decline of the Sufi Orders in Modern Egypt. The Muslim World, 67, 11-18.